3. Causes of Air Pollution

Air pollution is a leading environmental problem that threatens human health, ecosystems, and the climate. The main sources of this pollution are directly related to human activities and are concentrated in sectors such as energy production, transportation, industry, and agriculture. Air pollution is a multifaceted problem that affects not only the air we breathe but also the soil, water, and climate systems.

3.1. Fossil Fuel Use and Energy Production

Energy is an indispensable part of modern life. We need energy to heat our homes, power factories, provide transportation, and use in almost every aspect of our daily lives. A significant portion of this need is still met through fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. However, the use of fossil fuels is not limited to energy production; it also poses a major threat in terms of air pollution, climate change, and public health.

According to 2023 data, approximately 82% of global primary energy consumption still comes from fossil fuels. This percentage is quite striking in terms of understanding the impact of energy policies on the environment. While approximately 14.8 billion tons of oil equivalent (TOE) of energy is consumed annually, 4.7 billion TOE comes from petroleum, 3.9 billion TOE from coal, and 3.4 billion TOE from natural gas. These figures clearly demonstrate how dominant fossil fuels are in global energy systems and, consequently, how they are the primary source of air pollution.

The harmful gases and particles released during the combustion of fossil fuels severely degrade air quality. The primary pollutants emitted into the atmosphere during this process are as follows:

• Carbon dioxide (CO₂): The most important greenhouse gas and the primary cause of climate change.
• Carbon monoxide (CO): Produced as a result of incomplete combustion, it inhibits oxygen transport in the blood and has a toxic effect.
• Sulfur dioxide (SO₂): Causes acid rain and irritates the respiratory tract.
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx): Contribute to the formation of ozone and smog; trigger lung diseases.
• Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10): Among the most dangerous pollutants; penetrates the respiratory system and causes heart and lung disorders.
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): Some are carcinogenic; they react with sunlight in the atmosphere to form ozone.
• Heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium): Primarily released during coal combustion; they have toxic effects on the nervous system.

These substances cause environmental degradation and pose significant risks to public health. Every year, millions of premature deaths worldwide are directly linked to air pollution. Fossil fuel-related air pollution is a key factor in the incidence of asthma, bronchitis, COPD, and cardiovascular diseases.

Fossil fuels not only emit direct pollutants but also contribute to the formation of secondary pollutants. For example, nitrogen oxides and VOCs interact with sunlight to produce ground-level ozone. Ground-level ozone irritates the respiratory system and accelerates the development of diseases such as COPD. Additionally, this gas is one of the greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming. A warming atmosphere accelerates ozone formation, which, when combined with heatwaves in cities, further deteriorates air quality.

Black Sea Region Countries

The countries bordering the Black Sea — Türkiye, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, and Georgia — face a common environmental problem despite their different energy profiles and levels of economic development: air pollution from fossil fuels. The fact that a significant portion of the region’s energy needs are met by fossil fuels contributes to both local air quality degradation and the deepening of the global climate crisis.

A significant portion of Türkiye’s energy production still relies on fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, and oil. Thermal power plants, particularly in regions like Zonguldak, Çanakkale, and Afşin-Elbistan, are concentrated in these areas and significantly impact local air quality. Although Türkiye has made progress in transitioning to renewable energy in recent years, the share of domestic coal sources such as lignite in energy production remains high. Additionally, dependence on natural gas imports has sparked energy security debates while also increasing greenhouse gas emissions associated with fossil fuel use.

Coal plays an important role in Bulgaria’s energy system. In particular, coal-fired thermal power plants located in the Maritsa Valley account for a large portion of the country’s electricity production. However, these plants struggle to comply with European Union environmental standards and emit significant levels of sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NO_x), and particulate matter (PM). According to reports by the European Environment Agency, Bulgaria ranks among the highest countries in Europe in terms of air pollution-related deaths per capita.

In Romania, fossil fuel use is also heavily relies on coal and natural gas. The country has begun the process of closing some coal-fired power plants in line with the European Union’s carbon neutrality targets. However, the thermal power plants operating in regions such as Oltenia and Hunedoara continue to cause significant environmental issues. Additionally, within the composition of energy infrastructure, the transition to renewable energy sources is progressing relatively slowly, and dependence on fossil fuels continue.

Ukraine’s energy infrastructure for a long period of time has relied on fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas. The coal reserves and thermal power plants in the Donbas region were meeting a significant portion of the country’s energy needs. However, the conflicts that has began in 2014 and turned out to be an ongoing war since 2022 have severely disrupted this system. This process has led to the destruction of energy infrastructure and caused a shift toward temporary energy solutions. In particular, attacks on energy facilities during the war have exacerbated both environmental pollution and the humanitarian crisis.

Georgia is a country with limited fossil fuel reserves and large portion of its energy needs are being imported. This situation makes Georgia vulnerable in terms of energy dependence, while carbon emissions resulting from the use of imported natural gas pose a significant problem. Although the country is rich in hydroelectric potential, natural gas consumption has increased in recent years due to rising energy demand. For Georgia, security of energy supply is a critical problem as important as the environmental impacts of fossil fuels.

The use of fossil fuels not only affects terrestrial air quality but also threatens the sensitive ecosystem of the Black Sea. Emissions from power plants and industrial facilities reach the sea surface in the form of acid rain, altering the chemical composition of seawater. Additionally, fuel emissions from maritime transportation and tanker spills negatively impact water quality and biodiversity in the Black Sea. Large-scale fossil fuel transportation from ports of Russia and Ukraine is a primary cause of marine pollution.

In developing countries, low-income population groups typically live in areas closer to fossil fuel-powered power plants and industrial facilities. This situation brings the issue of environmental inequality to the forefront. For example, countries like India and China have the highest air pollution-related death rates globally due to high population density and coal-heavy energy policies. Additionally, solid fuels used for indoor heating and cooking in low-income countries contribute significantly to indoor air pollution.

Strategies to Prevent Air Pollution from Fossil Fuels

Transforming energy systems is essential to prevent air pollution caused by fossil fuels. The primary strategies recommended in this context are as follows:

• Renewable Energy Use: Expanding the use of clean energy sources such as solar, wind, and geothermal energy.
• Energy Efficiency: Improving insulation in buildings, using LED lighting, and opting for energy-efficient appliances.
• Clean Transportation: Promoting electric vehicles and improving public transportation systems.
• Filtering Systems in Industrial and Energy Facilities: Compulsory technologies that control emissions.
• Individual Behavior Changes: Awareness of energy conservation, recycling habits, and reviewing consumption preferences.

Fossil fuels, while the most widely used energy source today, are also one of the primary causes of air pollution and the climate crisis. While their use contributes to short-term economic growth, they pose significant threats to human health and the future of our planet in the long term. Therefore, reducing dependence on fossil fuels and building a cleaner and more sustainable energy future requires decisive action from all stakeholders, from individuals to governments.

3.2. Industrial and Factory Emissions

Since the Industrial Revolution, humanity has continuously increased its production capacity through economic growth and technological advance. However, this progress has had serious impacts on the environment and human health. Today, the factories and the industrial facilities are one of the biggest sources of air pollution worldwide. The pollutants emitted from these sources not only harm the atmosphere but also negatively affect soil, water resources and ecosystems. Industrial air pollution is at the center of many issues, including climate change, acid rain, health problems, and environmental degradation.

Industrial and factory emissions are formed by the release of gases and particulate matter into the atmosphere during production processes. A wide variety of pollutants are produced during processes such as energy production, raw material processing, chemical reactions, and waste incineration. The most common pollutants include:

• Carbon dioxide (CO₂): The primary greenhouse gas; it is the main cause of climate change.
• Sulfur dioxide (SO₂): Formed by the combustion of sulfur-containing fuels such as coal and fuel oil; causes acid rain.
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx): Formed during high-temperature combustion processes; increase ozone formation.
• Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10): These are invisible particles such as dust, soot, and ash; they can enter the lungs through breathing.
• Volatile organic compounds (VOC): Chemicals released into the air from substances such as paint, solvents, and adhesives; some are carcinogenic.
• Heavy metals: Toxic metals such as mercury, lead, and cadmium are primarily emitted during coal and mining processes.
• Toxins such as dioxins and furans: These are primarily emitted from waste incineration facilities and can persist in the environment for extended periods.

Industrial pollution is most concentrated in the energy, metallurgy, chemical, cement, petrochemical, and textile industries worldwide. Weak environmental regulations in developing countries, in particular, increase pollution production in these sectors. For example:

• Refineries emit VOCs such as benzene, toluene, and xylene, as well as gases like SO₂.
• Steel plants are major sources of heavy metals and particulate matter (PM).
• Mines generate both gas and dust pollution; silica dust causes silicosis in workers.
• Petrochemical plants emit toxic gases as well as significant VOC emissions during the production of plastics and chemicals.

These pollutants do not only pollute the atmosphere but also, contaminate water sources, soil, and even the food chain, posing long-term health risks.

The fact that industrial facilities are often located in low-income, rural, or ethnically diverse areas creates environmental injustice. This situation exposes already disadvantaged communities to higher levels of pollution and limits their ability to address the issue. In this context, air pollution should not only be considered as an environmental issue but also it should be considered and adressed as a social problem.

Industrialization has been a driving force behind economic growth in countries by creating jobs, supporting infrastructure development and raising welfare level. However, this development process has caused environmental costs in return. Air pollution caused by industrial facilities poses a threat to the health of local communities, particularly in countries bordering the Black Sea, and damages marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Industrial activities in these regions are in a large scale to an extent that their environmental consequences would require regional cooperation.

Black Sea Region Countries

Türkiye has concentrated its industry in the Marmara, Aegean, and Black Sea regions. Industrial activities based on iron and steel, coal mining, chemicals, and energy are intensively carried out in cities such as Zonguldak, Ereğli, and Samsun along the Black Sea coast.

• Zonguldak is known for its coal mining and thermal power plants. In this region, air pollution, sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NO_x), and particulate matter (PM) levels frequently exceed national threshold values.
• Samsun hosts fertilizer and refining industries. Emissions of VOCs and heavy metals from these facilities pose serious health risks due to their proximity to residential areas.
• Organized Industrial Zones (OSBs) are expanding; however, their wastewater treatment and filtration systems are not always adequate.

Although Türkiye has developed a legislation to control emissions, there are issues with its implementation and inspection. Additionally, environmental exemptions that are being granted to thermal power plants are often causing public debates.

In Bulgaria, industry is heavily reliant on coal-fired power plants and heavy industry. The Maritsa Thermal Power Plant Complex in Stara Zagora is one of the largest air pollution sources in the Balkans.

• SO₂ and PM emissions from the power plants significantly degrade air quality.
• Despite being a member of the European Union, Bulgaria ranks among the countries exceeding the EU’s air pollution limit values.

While the country is trying exit from coal dependence under the European Green Deal, this transition is going slow due to energy security concerns.

Romania, particularly industrial cities such as Petroşani, Galaţi, Ploieşti, and Constanţa, has an economy based on coal, steel, and petrochemical production.

• The iron and steel factories in Galaţi are notable for their high emissions of carbon monoxide, PM, and heavy metals.
• The Port of Constanţa contributes to poor air quality due to both maritime transport-related pollutants and refinery activities.

As an EU member, Romania has implemented digital monitoring systems to track industrial emissions; however, the modernization of some older facilities remains incomplete.

Industry in Ukraine is concentrated in the eastern Donetsk and Dnipro basins. The Black Sea coastal cities of Odessa and Mykolaiv are important for shipbuilding, chemical, and agricultural processing industries.

• Ukraine has technologically outdated facilities due to its Soviet-era heavy industrial infrastructure.
• Air filtration systems are often missing or not operational in these facilities.
• Despite the decline in industrial production due to the war, the environmental impacts of bombed industrial infrastructure have reached serious levels.

Due to the destruction of energy infrastructure, irregular fuel use (such as tires and plastics) has increased in some regions, leading to the spread of hazardous air pollutants.

Georgia has relatively, a more limited industrial structure. However, Batumi (Batumi) on the Black Sea coast is a significant regional source of pollution due to petrochemical and port activities.

• Georgia has begun developing EU-compliant environmental laws to limit industrial air pollution.
• However, the lack of infrastructure investments is making it difficult to control pollution, especially in small and medium-sized industrial enterprises.

Impact on the Black Sea Ecosystem

Industrial emissions harm not only the atmosphere but also the Black Sea itself. Sulfur and nitrogen compounds carried to land and sea by acid rain alter the pH balance of seawater, negatively impacting marine life. Heavy metals hinder the development of phytoplankton and fish. In particular, cooling water discharges from thermal power plants create thermal pollution, disrupting ecosystems. Accidents and leaks in industrial ports cause contamination of oil and chemical substances into the sea, affecting both fishing and tourism negatively.

Industrial and factory emissions in countries bordering the Black Sea pose a threat to the region in terms of environmental and public health. Although each country’s situation is different, air pollution is a problem that knows no borders. Therefore, the solution must be based on cross-border cooperation. Clean production techniques, strict monitoring mechanisms, and regional solidarity can help to sustain economic growth while reducing negative environmental impacts. Protecting the joint Black Sea air and water should not only be an environmental policy but also be a development strategy for these countries.

Solutions for Reducing Industrial Air Pollution

Reducing industrial air pollution is possible. To achieve this, technological, legal, and administrative tools must be used together:

• Filtration and treatment systems: Technologies such as electrostatic filters, flue gas washing systems, and flue gas treatment should be widely adopted.
• Clean production techniques: Production methods that consume less energy and generate less waste should be supported.
• Use of renewable energy: Alternative energy sources such as solar, wind, and geothermal energy should be encouraged instead of fossil fuel consumption.
• Solid emission standards: Emission limits should be tightened through legal regulations and enforced through regular inspections.
• Continuous air monitoring systems should be established in industrial areas.
• Proper waste management: The direct release of hazardous waste into the environment must be prevented; recycling and disposal processes must be strictly monitored.

Industrial and factory emissions are invisible yet the most dangerous externalities of modern production systems. Given their direct health impacts, irreversible damage to ecosystems, and contribution to the climate crisis, it is a problem that cannot be neglected. However, it is possible to reduce industrial air pollution through proper policies, effective technologies and increased public awareness. Establishing a balance between economic development and environmental health is essential to guarantee a healthy life for both current and future generations.

3.3. Transport and Transportation Systems

Transportation systems, which form the backbone of modern societies, enable people’s mobility, trade and economic development. However, a large portion of these systems are dependent on fossil fuels, making transportation-related air pollution a significant environmental and health issue. Road, sea, rail, and air transportation are major sources of air pollutants today. In particular, air quality is severely degraded in large cities due to traffic congestion, the use of low-quality fuels, and old vehicles.

Transportation systems emit a wide range of harmful gases and particles, including carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5), and carbon dioxide (CO₂). These pollutants not only reduce air quality but also directly impact public health:

• Carbon monoxide: Even at low levels, it is toxic and prevents oxygen transport.
• Nitrogen oxides and VOCs: Form ground-level ozone through photochemical reactions; trigger asthma and respiratory diseases.
• Particulate matter: Can reach deep into lung tissue; may cause cancer and heart disease over the long term.
• Carbon dioxide: The primary greenhouse gas, contributing to climate change.

These pollutants caused by transportation are critically important in terms of both short-term health problems and long-term environmental degradation.

Road Transport

Road transport, the most common form of transportation, is the largest source of pollution, particularly due to vehicles with internal combustion engines. The increasing number of motor vehicles and continuous use of older models in traffic are contributing to deteriorating air quality in many cities.

• Diesel-powered vehicles are the primary contributors to PM and NOx emissions.
• Individual vehicle use results in significantly higher carbon emissions compared to public transportation.
• Traffic congestion causes engines to run at low efficiency and emit more pollutants.

Traffic congestion, especially during morning and evening rush hours in city centers, raises air pollution levels to dangerous levels.

Maritime Transport

Although maritime transport, which forms the backbone of international trade, is advantageous due to its low cost, it causes serious environmental problems. Large cargo ships typically use low-quality fuels with high sulfur content.

• Port cities (e.g., Istanbul, Varna, Constanţa, Odessa, Batum) are exposed to high levels of pollution due to SO₂ and PM emissions from maritime traffic.
• Ship engines are lack of adequate filtration in their exhaust systems.
• The Black Sea is an inland sea with a high maritime traffic volume but has a limited environmental monitoring systems.

Emissions from maritime transport affect not only the air but also seawater and coastal ecosystems.

Air Transport

Aircrafts emit gases such as CO₂ and NOx at high altitudes. These gases directly mix into the troposphere, affecting global warming and ozone balance. Although air pollution from aircraft is not felt in city centers, NOx and VOC concentrations increase in residential areas around airports.

• Jet engines emit high levels of pollutants, especially during takeoff and landing.
• Large airports have significant carbon footprints due to both air traffic and ground services.

Rail Transport

Rail transport is the most environmentally friendly option compared to other modes of transportation. Electric train systems stand out for their low energy consumption and near-zero emissions. However:

• Diesel locomotives are still in use in some regions and contribute to PM and NOx emissions.
• Infrastructure deficiencies limit the expansion of railways.

Transportation systems play a major role in countries’ economic development and social mobility. However, these systems are also among the significant sources of air pollution. In particular, increasing urbanization, motor vehicle use and international transportation activities in countries bordering the Black Sea are causing regional air quality degradation. Road traffic, maritime transport, aviation, and railway systems pose risks to the environment and public health by directly or indirectly emitting harmful gases and particulates.

Black Sea Region Countries

The transportation sector is one of the main causes of energy consumption and air pollution in Türkiye. Transportation infrastructure in major cities along the Black Sea coast (Samsun, Trabzon, Zonguldak) is largely dependent on roads.

• Road transport: Freight and passenger transport is primarily carried out by road. This increases the density of diesel vehicles, leading to emissions of NOx and PM.
• Public transportation infrastructure: The lack of advanced urban rail systems increases individual vehicle use.
• Port cities: The ports of Samsun and Zonguldak are significant sources of pollution due to ship exhaust emissions.
• Airports: Air quality monitoring studies are needed, especially around the Ordu-Giresun and Trabzon Airports.

Efforts are being made to reduce transportation-related emissions in Türkiye by promoting electric vehicles and bicycle lanes, but this transition remains limited.

In Bulgaria, the proportion of vehicles running on diesel fuel is quite high. This situation is leading to a decline in air quality in many cities across the country. The cities of Varna and Burgas on the Black Sea coast are important centers for both road and sea transportation.

• Port activities: The heavy ship traffic at the ports of Varna and Burgas contributes to SO₂ and PM pollution.
• Old vehicles: Despite being an EU member, a significant portion of vehicles on Bulgarian roads are old diesel models.
• Public transportation: Public transportation infrastructure is inadequate in cities outside Sofia.

Despite ongoing efforts to comply with EU environmental standards, there are serious structural deficiencies in the environmental sustainability of transportation systems.

Romania is one of the countries facing challenges in combating air pollution caused by transportation. Constanţa is both the largest port on the Black Sea and one of the places where air pollution caused by transportation is most intensely felt.

• Motor vehicle density: In major cities such as Bucharest, old vehicles are negatively affecting air quality.
• Maritime transport: Constanţa Port is heavily used for cargo transportation. Ships waiting in the port emit pollutants by continuously running their engines.
• Fuel quality is low in rural areas, which exacerbates the environmental impact of road transportation.

Although EU-supported electric bus projects and green transportation strategies are being implemented, transition is slow.

Ukraine faces challenges in reducing transportation-related emissions due to both its aging vehicle fleet from the Soviet era and the conditions of the ongoing war.

• Odessa Port: One of the busiest ports on the Black Sea; pollution from tankers and cargo ships is high.
• Road infrastructure: Inadequate and hinders traffic flow, thereby increasing fuel consumption and emissions.
• Post-war irregular fuel use and the burning materials such as tires and plastics are causing harmful gas emissions.

Due to damage to Ukraine’s air quality monitoring infrastructure, the extent of transportation-related pollution cannot be accurately determined.

Georgia is an important center for both road and sea transportation through Batum, its gateway to the Black Sea.

• The Port of Batumi creates environmental pressure due to fuel transportation and ship traffic.
• Transportation transformation is ongoing in Tbilisi and Batumi, with electric bus projects being encouraged.
• Most vehicles are imported used models, which contribute to outdated engine technology and high emissions.

It is possible to make environmental improvements to Georgia’s transport systems in cooperation with neighboring countries, but the funding is limited.

Strategies to Combat Transportation-Related Air Pollution

Combating air pollution caused by transportation requires a comprehensive and decisive policy:

• Promoting the use of clean fuels (electric and hybrid vehicles),
• Prioritizing public transportation and strengthening infrastructure,
• Expanding bicycle lanes and pedestrian-priority areas,
• Incentives to phase out old vehicles,
• Implementation of low-emission technologies in maritime and air transport,
• Transportation planning that reduces carbon footprints (e.g., low-emission zones),
• Continuous monitoring and public disclosure of transportation-related emissions.

Transportation systems, although an indispensable part of modern life, have significant impacts on the environment and human health that cannot be ignored. Countries in the Black Sea Basin, in particular, face common environmental risks stemming from both road and sea transportation. Therefore, sustainability should be the guiding principle in transportation policies, and the transition from fossil fuel-based systems to innovative, clean, and integrated transportation solutions should be accelerated. Clean transportation is essential for clean air.

3.4. Agricultural Activities and Open-Air Burning

When we think of air pollution often people often think about industrial facilities, motor vehicles, and large cities first. However, agricultural activities and open burning in rural areas are also, significant contributors to poor air quality. This type of pollution, which is invisible but has serious effects, harms both regional and global environmental health and human life.

Agricultural production and land management not only provide food but also put significant pressure on natural resources such as soil, water, and air. In particular, ammonia (NH₃) emissions, pesticide use, fertilization methods, and open-air biomass burning are the main factors contributing to poor air quality in rural areas.

Primary Pollutants from Agriculture

While modern agricultural practices increase productivity, they also result in the release of significant amounts of air pollutants into the atmosphere. The primary pollutants caused by agriculture are as follows:

• Ammonia (NH₃): Released through livestock farming and the use of nitrogen-based fertilizers. It converts into nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere, contributing to the formation of fine particulate matter (PM2.5).
• Methane (CH₄): Released during the digestive process in cattle farming and from manure piles. It is a powerful greenhouse gas.
• Particulate matter and black carbon: Primarily released during the burning of agricultural residues. It affects the lungs and contributes to global warming.
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): Some pesticides and chemicals mix with the air and contribute to ozone formation.

These pollutants undermine the perception of “clean air” in rural areas, creating invisible but highly dangerous hazards.

Open-Air Burning of Crop Residues

The burning of crop residues and stubble in fields after harvest is still a common practice in some areas. However, this practice has serious environmental consequences:

• Substances such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO₂), particulate matter, and black carbon are released in high concentrations.
• The top fertile layer of the soil is being damaged during the burning process, leading to a decline in soil quality over the long term.
• The risk of fires increases; flames carried by the wind can spread to forests and residential areas.
• Fine particulate matter can affect not only the areas where burning occurs but also much more distant locations carried by the wind.

Although burning stubble is legally prohibited or subject to strict restrictions in many countries, this practice continues due to inadequate enforcement.

Black Sea Region Countries

Türkiye is a country rich in agricultural production diversity. Walnut, tea, and corn production are particularly prominent in the Black Sea region. Stubble burning, which is widespread in regions such as Southeastern Anatolia and Central Anatolia, can cause indirect damage to the Black Sea through fine particles carried by the wind.

• Ammonia emissions are high in areas with intensive livestock farming.
• The use of animal manure as fuel in rural areas contributes to both indoor and outdoor air pollution.
• Although stubble burning is legally prohibited, it is still widely practiced due to inadequate enforcement.

In Bulgaria, agriculture, particularly wheat and sunflower production, is the primary source of income for rural areas. However, practices such as stubble burning and animal manure drying in these regions contribute to increased ammonia and particulate matter pollution.

• Livestock farming and the use of nitrogen fertilizers are the main sources of NH₃ emissions.
• Despite being a member of the European Union, Bulgaria still faces serious challenges in controlling agricultural emissions.

In Romania, cereals such as corn, wheat, and sunflowers are grown, particularly in large plains, and the burning of agricultural residues is widespread.

• Due to the lack of fertilizer management systems, ammonia emissions are at high levels.
• High pesticide use contributes to increased VOC-related pollution in agriculture.
• Although EU-supported biogas projects have been developed in Romania, they have not gained widespread adoption.

Ukraine is one of the largest agricultural producers in the Black Sea region. Wheat, corn, and sunflower production is particularly intensive. However, these activities also have significant environmental impacts.

• Post-harvest biomass burning is widespread.
• Due to the war, monitoring and environmental control systems have been damaged, leading to an increase in uncontrolled burning.
• Methane and ammonia emissions from large-scale livestock farms are high.

Although agriculture in Georgia is mostly small-scale, a large portion of the rural population relies on agriculture for their livelihood. The Batumi region along the Black Sea coast is known for both tea and corn cultivation.

• In rural areas, animal manure is dried and used as fuel.
• Plant residues are burned to clean fields, leading to heavy smoke formation, especially in spring and autumn.
• Pesticide use is unregulated, leads to pollution of both air and water sources.

Strategies to Prevent Agricultural Air Pollution

Air pollution caused by agricultural and open-field burning can be prevented. To achieve this:

• Stubble burning must be strictly prohibited and effectively monitored.
• Organic waste should be recycled through composting or biogas production.
• Good management practices should be promoted in livestock farming to reduce ammonia and methane emissions.
• Fertilization methods should be improved, and controlled and precision farming systems should be encouraged.
• Farmers should be educated to raise awareness about air pollution.
• Systems to monitor air quality in rural areas should be established, and data should be shared with the public.

Agricultural activities and open burning are often overlooked but significant sources of air pollution. People living in rural areas are often exposed to this pollution for long periods of time and face health risks. These practices, which are a common problem in Black Sea countries, can only be reduced through cooperation, monitoring, and awareness-raising. Clean air should be a right not only in cities but also in villages and fields.

3.5. Domestic Heating and Waste Burning

When we talk about air pollution, we usually think of large industrial facilities, vehicles on the road, or power plants. However, there is another source of pollution that is often overlooked but highly prevalent: domestic heating and waste burning practices. Especially during winter months, the use of low-quality fuels and the burning of domestic waste to meet individual heating needs in residential areas significantly deteriorates air quality in many settlements, particularly in rural and low-income regions.

Such individual practices pose significant risks to both human health and environmental sustainability. The smoke from stoves, the burning of coal and wood, and the uncontrolled burning of household waste such as nylon, rubber, and plastic cause fine particulate matter and toxic gases to mix directly into the air we breathe.

Fuels Used in Domestic Heating

Domestic heating is primarily carried out using individual stoves and boilers, especially in areas without central heating systems. The following fuels are commonly used in these systems:

• Low-quality coal (high sulfur and ash content),
• Wood and sawdust,
• Animal manure (dried dung),
• Waste materials (rubber, plastic, paint cans, textile scraps).

Harmful Components from Burning

Burning these materials releases the following harmful components into the atmosphere:

• Particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5): These particles can reach the lungs and cause damage to the respiratory system.
• Sulfur dioxide (SO₂): Associated with throat irritation, asthma, and heart conditions.
• Carbon monoxide (CO): Highly toxic when inhaled, can cause sudden death.
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and dioxins: Some are toxic compounds that can cause cancer.
• Black carbon: It has negative effects on health and accelerates climate change by increasing atmospheric warming.

These pollutants from domestic heating are the primary cause of “smog” (smoke + fog), which is often perceived as “smoke” or “fog” in cities during the winter months.

Household Waste Incineration

The incineration of household waste, though seen by some as an easy cleaning method, leads to serious air and soil pollution.

• Waste such as plastic, paint, rubber, textiles, and packaging release toxic gases like dioxins and furans when burned.
• These gases not only pose a threat when inhaled but also contaminate food, water, and animals when they settle into the soil, thereby indirectly endangering health.
• Odors emitted during waste incineration reduce the quality of life for people living in the surrounding area.

Additionally, uncontrolled waste burning leads to persistent environmental issues such as hidden fire risks, toxic gas emissions, and soil contamination.

Research has shown that indoor air pollution is 2-5 times higher than outdoor air pollution. This poses a serious risk, especially for those living in homes with stoves.

Black Sea Region Countries

Countries bordering the Black Sea basin, such as Türkiye, Bulgaria, Romania, and Ukraine, face significant pressure on air quality due to domestic heating and waste burning activities. These practices are one of the main causes of air pollution, especially during the winter months. This issue, which has negative effects on both health and the environment, should be addressed as a common problem at the regional level.

In Türkiye, domestic heating is still carried out using wood, coal, and dung, especially in rural areas. In rural areas along the Black Sea coast, firewood and low-calorie coal are frequently used. Additionally, open burning of waste is still a common practice in some regions.

In Bulgaria, coal and wood burning are widespread in low-income areas. Despite the European Union’s strict emission standards, particulate matter pollution from heating remains at high levels. In cities such as Varna and Burgas, air quality deteriorates rapidly during nighttime hours.

In Romania, many rural homes use individual heating systems. Low-quality fuels, especially during winter months, raise PM2.5 levels to dangerous levels. Additionally, the practice of burning waste in stoves is prevalent. Although EU-supported conversion programs are being implemented, their coverage is limited.

In Ukraine, due to damage to the energy infrastructure caused by the war, many homes are resorting to unplanned heating solutions. This has increased the burning of materials such as plastic, fabric, and rubber, raising health risks. Traditional stove systems are widespread in rural areas.

In Georgia, domestic heating in rural areas is still carried out using wood, coal, and dried animal dung. Due to high electricity prices, individuals are resorting to alternative means (plastic, rubber) to obtain fuel. This results in harmful chemicals being released into the atmosphere.

Prevention Strategies

Strategies that can be implemented to prevent pollution caused by domestic heating and waste burning include:

• Promoting the use of clean fuels and natural gas,
• Improving energy efficiency through insulation support,
• Incentives for electric heaters and heat pumps,
• Strengthening waste separation and recycling infrastructure,
• Awareness campaigns in rural areas,
• Redesigning residential fuel subsidies to encourage environmentally friendly solutions.

Domestic heating and waste incineration are sources of air pollution that may seem individual but affect the entire community. This problem is particularly prevalent in rural and low-income areas of countries bordering the Black Sea. Therefore, supporting environmentally friendly heating methods, increasing access to clean fuels, and raising awareness about waste management are essential for protecting public health and creating a more livable environment. It should not be forgotten that clean air is not just a right for big cities, but for every home.

3.6. Maritime Activities

Maritime activities, particularly maritime transport and port operations, are important components of global trade and economic development today. However, these activities, especially in regions with high vessel traffic such as the Black Sea, have significant environmental impacts in terms of air pollution. Air pollution caused by maritime transport can negatively affect regional air quality, harming both ecosystems and human health.

Emissions from Ships

Ships, especially large cargo and passenger ships, typically use heavy fuel oil and other fossil fuels to meet their energy needs. These types of fuels release high levels of harmful emissions during combustion:

• Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂): Due to the high sulfur content in fuels like heavy fuel oil, ships release large amounts of SO₂. SO₂ contributes to the formation of acid rain and can cause respiratory illnesses.
• Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): NOx emissions from ship engines contribute to the formation of ozone (O₃) and particulate matter in the atmosphere, thereby reducing air quality.
• Particulate Matter (PM): Fine particles emitted from engine combustion harm the respiratory system and increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases.
• Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): The shipping industry accounts for a significant portion of global carbon emissions and contributes to climate change.

Port Operations

Shipping is not limited to the movement of ships; loading and unloading operations in ports, the operation of ship engines, and the use of cranes and other equipment are also sources of air pollution. Diesel-powered machinery and vehicles used in these activities cause NOx and PM emissions that negatively affect local air quality, particularly in port areas.

Black Sea Region Countries

Türkiye has a long coastline along the Black Sea, with important port cities including Istanbul, Zonguldak, Samsun, Trabzon, and Rize. Türkiye’s strategic location in the Black Sea for maritime transport is vital for both international trade and regional transportation via the straits.

• Trade and Transit Traffic: A significant portion of the ship traffic in the Black Sea passes through Turkish waters. This increases loading and unloading activities at ports, thereby posing a risk of severe air pollution in port areas.
• Fuel Use and Emissions: Many ships in Türkiye still use heavy fuel oil with high sulfur content, which contributes to air pollution and acid rain. Increased ship traffic and port activities, especially during winter months, negatively impact regional air quality.
• Sustainability Initiatives: Türkiye is implementing various projects to promote the widespread use of shore power systems in ports and transition to low-sulfur fuel. Additionally, modernization efforts and environmental inspections in ports are increasing.

The ports of Burgas and Varna, located on Bulgaria’s Black Sea coast, play a central role in the country’s foreign trade and maritime transport.

• Economic Role of Ports: The Port of Burgas is an important center for the transportation of petroleum and chemical products. The Port of Varna is active in container transportation and passenger transportation.
• Environmental Issues: Air pollution caused by maritime activities in Bulgaria poses a health risk, particularly for people living in port cities. The quality of fuels used and emissions from older vessels are among the main causes of regional air pollution.
• Improvement Efforts: Bulgaria is investing in environmentally friendly technologies in its ports in line with European Union environmental standards. Awareness campaigns on emission control and waste management are ongoing.

Constanta Port, Romania’s most important port on the Black Sea coast, is a regional trade hub and one of the largest ports in the Black Sea.

• Importance of the Port of Constanta: As a critical hub for cargo and passenger transportation, the port serves as an important bridge between Europe and Asia in maritime trade routes.
• Sources of Air Pollution: SO₂, NOx, and particulate matter emissions from port operations and ship traffic negatively affect air quality around the port. Additionally, industrial facilities in the vicinity of the port contribute to pollution.
• Sustainability and Modernization: Romania is modernizing its port infrastructure, using environmentally friendly cranes and vehicles, and working to increase ships’ access to shore power systems. Policies encouraging the use of low-sulfur fuels are also being implemented.

Ukraine has important ports in the Black Sea, such as Odessa, Mariupol, and Yuzhny. These ports account for a significant portion of the country’s foreign trade.

• Scale of Maritime Trade: The Port of Odessa is the country’s largest port in terms of both cargo and passenger transportation. Mariupol, on the other hand, plays a key role in the export of industrial products.
• Environmental Issues: The quality of fuels used in maritime activities in Ukraine and the efficiency of ship engines pose problems in terms of air pollution. High levels of exhaust gas emissions and dust pollution are observed around ports.
• Environmental Management: Ukraine is striving to improve port management and invest in environmentally friendly technologies in the maritime sector in order to comply with international standards and reduce environmental impacts. However, political and economic challenges are affecting this process.

The Port of Batumi is an important transshipment point for regional trade. Port infrastructure in Georgia is under development, and efforts are ongoing to transition to sustainable maritime practices.

Regulations and Solutions

Maritime activities play an indispensable economic role in countries bordering the Black Sea, while their environmental impacts are also gaining increasing importance. Türkiye, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, and other coastal countries are taking steps to reduce air pollution through clean technologies such as the modernization of port infrastructure, the use of low-sulfur fuels, and shore power systems. However, achieving a sustainable maritime sector without regional cooperation and common environmental policies is not possible. It is of great importance for these countries to act together to keep the Black Sea clean and healthy.

Various international and regional regulations and technological advancements are being implemented to reduce the impact of maritime activities on air pollution:

• Improvement of Fuel Quality: The requirement to use low-sulfur fuel, implemented by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), is an important step in reducing emissions.
• Emission Control Areas (ECA): Potential ECA zones in the Black Sea would require ships to comply with stricter emission standards.
• Electric and Hybrid Technologies: The use of electric and hybrid systems in ship engines reduces fossil fuel consumption and minimizes pollution.
• Use of Clean Energy in Ports: By using electric equipment and shore power systems in port operations, ship engines can be shut down, thereby improving air quality around the port.
• Strict Monitoring and Inspection: Regular monitoring of ship exhaust gases is necessary to ensure compliance with environmental standards.

Shipping activities are an important part of both economic development and environmental risks in the Black Sea region. Air pollution caused by these activities threatens both human health and ecosystems. However, with the widespread adoption of sustainable and environmentally friendly practices, it is possible to minimize the negative impacts of maritime activities on air quality. This requires not only the efforts of individual countries but also international cooperation and compliance with shared standards.