7. Air Pollution Control Policies

7.1. National Legislation and Standards

7.1.1. Türkiye

Legal regulations aimed at preventing air pollution in Türkiye began to develop in the 1980s. Article 56 of the 1982 Constitution states that everyone has the right to live in a healthy and balanced environment. Following this constitutional basis, the 1983 Environment Law established a general legal framework for all environmental legislation, including air pollution. After this law, more technical and detailed regulations aimed at protecting air quality came into force.

The first comprehensive regulation was the “Air Quality Protection Regulation” issued in 1986. This regulation set limit values for air pollutants emitted from key sources such as industry, heating, and transportation, and defined measurement and monitoring obligations. However, the values set in this initial regulation were significantly behind current scientific knowledge and health requirements. In the 2000s, under the influence of the harmonization process with the European Union, air quality legislation was restructured, and more comprehensive and up-to-date regulations were enacted.

The “Regulation on the Control of Air Pollution from Heating” published in 2005 and the “Regulation on the Control of Air Pollution from Industrial Sources” that came into effect in 2009 marked important steps toward reducing pollutants at their source. These regulations include numerous technical provisions, ranging from the quality of coal and other fuels to filters on industrial facility chimneys.

The most fundamental and comprehensive legislation on air quality management in Türkiye is the “Air Quality Assessment and Management Regulation” (HKDYY) published in 2008. This regulation was prepared based on the European Union’s 2008/50/EC Air Quality Directive. Annual and short-term (hourly, daily) limit values have been established for primary pollutants such as PM₁₀, PM₂.₅, NO₂, SO₂, CO, and O₃. The regulation also addresses issues such as the establishment of monitoring stations, data quality, public information, and the implementation of necessary measures in cases of emergency.

With the HKDYY, air quality measurements have become systematic in Türkiye; as of today, hundreds of monitoring stations have been established across the country and real-time data is shared with the public. However, there are still shortcomings in terms of certain pollutants. In particular, Türkiye’s legislation on PM₂.₅ still lags behind European Union and World Health Organization (WHO) standards. No legal limit value has been established for PM₂.₅, only a “target value” has been set. However, according to the WHO’s updated air quality guidelines from 2021, the annual average exposure limit for PM₂.₅ is a very low level of 5 µg/m³. This value is not met in almost any city in Türkiye.

Most of the limit values currently applied in Türkiye are the same or similar to those of the European Union. For example, the daily limit of 50 µg/m³ and the annual limit of 40 µg/m³ for PM₁₀, and the annual limit of 40 µg/m³ for NO₂ fall within this scope. However, these values are not always met in Turkey, and the WHO prioritizes public health by recommending lower limits. This difference is particularly significant when assessed in terms of health impacts. The current limit values in Türkiye are not considered safe from a health perspective.

There are certain strengths in the implementation of regulations. For example, Türkiye has largely completed its air quality monitoring infrastructure and shares measurement data with both national authorities and the European Environment Agency. Technical progress has been made in many areas, such as exhaust emission controls (through TUVTURK), environmental permit requirements for industrial facilities, and fuel quality controls. However, there are still shortcomings in monitoring and enforcement, particularly in certain regions. For example, air pollution levels frequently exceed legal limits in heavy industrial areas (Dilovasi, Iskenderun, Zonguldak, etc.). Additionally, capacity deficiencies in the implementation of regulations by municipalities and local authorities occasionally lead to serious issues.

In conclusion, air quality legislation in Türkiye provides a generally well-developed framework and is largely in line with the European Union. However, this legislation needs to be tightened up on health grounds and enforced more effectively in practice. In particular, new targets should be set to achieve the lower limit values recommended by the WHO; binding standards should be defined for critical pollutants such as PM₂.₅; and monitoring and enforcement measures should be made more deterrent. Clean air should be regarded as a constitutional right, and both central and local governments should take stronger steps in this direction. Effective legislation in the fight against air pollution is not only a vital tool for environmental protection but also for public health and economic sustainability.

7.1.2. Romania

Following its full accession to the European Union (EU) in 2007, Romania has established a legal framework for environmental policies and air quality management that is in line with EU legislation. In this context, a series of national legislation and standards have been developed to combat air pollution and control pollutant emissions, and European Commission directives have been integrated into national law. These regulations aim to protect human health and environmental sustainability while also enabling Romania to contribute to the EU’s environmental objectives.

The basis for air quality management in Romania is formed by the EU’s Air Quality Directive 2008/50/EC and the Industrial Emissions Directive 2010/75/EU. In line with these directives, Romania has developed national strategies for monitoring, assessing, and reporting atmospheric air quality. Regulations governing the control of pollutant emissions include specific limit values for pollutants that pose risks to human health, such as sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O₃), particulate matter (PM₁₀ and PM₂.₅), lead, benzene, and heavy metals. These limits are largely aligned with European standards.

The Romanian Ministry of Environment (Ministerul Mediului, Apelor și Pădurilor) is the main authority responsible for managing air quality throughout the country. In addition, the National Environmental Protection Agency (ANPM – Agenția Națională pentru Protecția Mediului) coordinates technical implementation and monitoring activities. Air quality in the country is continuously monitored through a network of over 100 stations. Measurements are reported as daily and annual averages, and these data are shared with both the public and the European Environment Agency (EEA).

In addition to the limit values defined for air pollutants in Romanian legislation, there are also “alarm thresholds” and “action plans” that come into effect when these limits are exceeded. For example, if PM10 levels exceed the daily limit, local authorities are expected to take measures such as traffic restrictions, fuel changes, or limitations on industrial activities. In this context, specific “Air Quality Management Plans” are prepared and implemented for each province or region. These plans include the identification of pollutant sources, improvement targets, monitoring methods, and public information procedures.

One of the key legal documents in Romania is Government Emergency Ordinance 195/2005. This ordinance defines the basic principles regarding air quality and ensures the implementation of air quality limits in line with EU standards. Additionally, the “Law on the Protection and Improvement of Air Quality” outlines the roles and responsibilities of local authorities in combating air pollution. Environmental permitting processes for industrial facilities, emission reporting requirements, and continuous monitoring obligations are defined within this legal framework.

In order to reduce air pollution caused by transportation, Romania has adopted EURO emission standards and made Euro 6 norms mandatory for new vehicles. Exhaust gas emission controls are conducted periodically, and incentives are provided to remove old and high-emission vehicles from traffic. Policies such as establishing “green zones” to reduce particulate matter and NO₂ pollution caused by motor vehicles in major cities and modernizing public transportation with electric vehicles are also on the agenda.

Romania also implements an integrated environmental permit (IPPC – Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control) system to limit industrial emissions. Under this system, facilities operating in sectors such as energy production, cement, metallurgy, and chemicals must not exceed the specified technical limits for emissions; facilities are required to apply the best available techniques (BAT).

Public awareness is also considered an important component for the effective implementation of air quality legislation in Romania. Air pollution measurement results are shared with the public through online platforms; warnings are issued on days when there is a risk, particularly for vulnerable groups (children, the elderly, and those with chronic illnesses). This approach aims to protect public health and raise environmental awareness.

In conclusion, Romania’s national legislation regulating air quality is in line with EU directives and has a comprehensive and detailed structure. Air quality data is managed transparently through monitoring, assessment, and control systems implemented nationwide, and concrete steps are being taken to reduce emissions from industrial, transportation, and heating sources. However, in some urban and industrial areas of Romania, pollutant levels continue to exceed limit values, especially during winter months. Therefore, it is necessary to develop local capacities to enhance the enforceability of the existing legal framework and to further encourage public participation. Romania’s experience in this area serves as a noteworthy example of sustainable environmental management in air quality policies across Europe.

7.1.3. Bulgaria

Since becoming a full member of the European Union in 2007, Bulgaria has implemented significant reforms to bring its environmental legislation into line with EU standards. During this process, laws, regulations, and enforcement mechanisms related to air quality have been developed based on EU directives and structured to take into account the country’s unique socioeconomic and geographical conditions. Bulgaria’s air quality policies are shaped by the objectives of protecting human health and ensuring environmental sustainability.

The legal framework for protecting air quality in Bulgaria is primarily established by the “Law on Environmental Protection” and the “Clean Air Act.” These legal frameworks are in line with the EU’s 2008/50/EC Air Quality Directive, the 2004/107/EC Directive on arsenic, cadmium, nickel, and PAHs, and the 2010/75/EU Industrial Emissions Directive. Additionally, annual and short-term limit values have been established for PM₁₀, PM₂.₅, NO₂, SO₂, O₃, CO, lead, benzene, arsenic, and other heavy metals under Bulgarian legislation.

The main authority responsible for air quality management and monitoring is the Bulgarian Ministry of Environment and Water (MOEW). The National Environment and Climate Change Agency (ExEA), which is affiliated with the Ministry, coordinates the national air quality monitoring network and reports pollutant data at the national and European levels. This network includes automatic measurement stations, mobile monitoring units, and modeling systems. All data is made publicly available through the European Environment Agency’s common data platform, ensuring transparency and accountability.

According to air quality monitoring results, Bulgaria, especially the capital Sofia and industrial cities such as Plovdiv, Ruse, and Pernik, frequently faces PM₁₀ and PM₂.₅ pollution. This situation is exacerbated by the widespread use of solid fuels for heating, traffic congestion, and topographical conditions. Special “Air Quality Improvement Programs” are being developed for these regions where EU limits are frequently exceeded, and local authorities are required to implement measures to reduce air pollution.

Bulgaria has adopted air pollutant limit values directly from EU legislation. For example:

• The daily limit for PM₁₀ is 50 µg/m³ (not to be exceeded more than 35 times per year), with an annual average of 40 µg/m³.
• The annual limit value for PM₂.₅ is 25 µg/m³ (according to the EU), but the World Health Organization has reduced this value to 5 µg/m³.
• The annual limit value for NO₂ is 40 µg/m³, and the maximum average for O₃ over eight hours is 120 µg/m³.

The implementation of these limit values is not limited to monitoring. If any pollutant exceeds the limit value, the relevant local authorities are legally required to prepare and implement an “action plan.” These plans include traffic regulations, fuel changes, industrial inspections, public transportation investments, and public awareness campaigns.

In Bulgaria, environmental impact assessment (EIA) processes are also used to analyze the impact of industrial activities on air quality. Environmental permit processes are based on the European Union’s IPPC (Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control) principles. Under these principles, large industrial facilities are required to use best available techniques (BAT). Emissions from chimneys are continuously monitored, and penalties are imposed if limits are exceeded.

To reduce air pollution from the transportation sector, Bulgaria has adopted the EURO emission standards applicable across Europe. Measures such as tax incentives for phasing out old diesel vehicles and promoting the use of electric vehicles have been implemented. Green transportation strategies have begun to be implemented in Sofia and some other major cities.

Despite this, Bulgaria is one of the countries with the highest death rates due to air pollution in the EU. The European Commission has initiated multiple infringement procedures against Bulgaria, and the European Court of Justice has ruled against Bulgaria due to PM₁₀ levels remaining above regulatory limits for many years. This situation demonstrates that, despite the existence of legislation, there are shortcomings and delays in implementation.

In recent years, Bulgaria has taken steps to improve air quality, including:

• Grant programs to reduce the use of solid fuels,
• Establishing low-emission zones,
• Increasing monitoring systems in sensitive areas such as schools and hospitals,
• Launching awareness campaigns for vulnerable groups such as children and the elderly.

As a result, although Bulgaria has a comprehensive legal framework on air quality, it faces serious air pollution problems that threaten public health due to challenges in implementation and enforcement. To effectively implement the legal framework in line with EU standards, it is essential to strengthen the capacity of local authorities, raise public awareness, and develop long-term strategies based on source control. Combating air pollution should not be viewed solely as an environmental policy but also as a public health priority.

7.1.4. Ukraine

Ukraine began developing its legal regulations on air quality management and pollutant control in the 2000s. The centralized environmental protection policies inherited from the Soviet era were reshaped in line with modern environmental management principles after independence. However, this transformation process has been slow due to economic difficulties and political instability. Since 2014, Ukraine has accelerated its efforts to bring its environmental legislation into line with European standards, gradually strengthening its technical and administrative infrastructure for air quality.

The basic legal framework for air quality management in Ukraine is established by the Law on Environmental Protection (1991) and the Law on Protection of Atmospheric Air (1992). These laws define air quality protection as a public service and specify the responsibilities of both individuals and businesses in combating air pollution. The laws establish limit values for air pollutant emissions, permit procedures, and monitoring methods. However, serious shortcomings have been observed in implementation over many years, and emission control has largely remained theoretical.

Air quality pollutant limit values in Ukraine are determined based on Soviet-era standards known as GOST and DSTU. These standards include short-term (1-hour, 24-hour) and long-term (annual) concentration limits for major pollutants such as SO₂, NO₂, CO, O, PM10, lead, and benzene. However, these limits often exceed those recommended by the European Union or the World Health Organization (WHO). For example, the WHO’s recommended annual average limit of 5 µg/m³ for PM2.5 has not yet been legally binding in Ukrainian legislation. This poses a significant risk to public health.

Air quality monitoring activities in Ukraine are carried out by the Ukrainian Hydrometeoroll Center and its regional air monitoring laboratories. This system includes approximately 160 fixed monitoring stations that periodically measure pollutants such as PM, NOₓ, SO₂, CO, and O₃. However, many monitoring stations are technologically outdated, have limited digital data transmission capabilities, and their measurement scope is narrow in terms of pollutants. This situation prevents adequate monitoring of air pollution, particularly in large industrial regions such as Donetsk, Dnipro, Kryvyi Rih, and Zaporizhzhia.

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Law, which came into force in 2017, marked a significant turning point in Ukraine’s environmental policies. Under this law, the prior assessment of the environmental impacts of large infrastructure projects has become mandatory, based on the EU’s EIA Directive. In this context, businesses seeking to operate in sectors with potential air pollution, such as power plants, waste incineration facilities, and the chemical industry, are required to report their air emissions in detail and propose technological solutions to reduce their impacts.

Under the EU-Ukraine Association Agreement (2014), Ukraine is obligated to align its environmental legislation with European standards. In line with this agreement, the implementation of the Air Quality Directive 2008/50/EC, the modernization of monitoring infrastructure, and the provision of public access to air quality information are targeted. During this process, the European Commission has provided technical and financial support to Ukraine, implementing projects aimed at developing environmental information systems, establishing early warning mechanisms, and modernizing data management software.

However, the main sources of air pollution in Ukraine are still not under control. In particular, coal-fired thermal power plants and heavy industrial complexes cause significant emissions of PM, SO₂, and NOₓ. Transportation-related emissions also negatively impact air quality in major cities, exacerbated by the high density of older vehicles on the roads and poor fuel quality. The use of solid fuels for heating, particularly during winter months, leads to severe air pollution in small settlements.

In large cities such as Kiev, PM2.5 and NO₂ levels are measured above EU limits. However, current legislation does not clearly define the “action plans” that should be implemented in cases of exceedance. This makes it difficult for public authorities to take swift and effective measures. In addition, the sharing of air quality data with the public is still limited. While access to real-time data is often only available in major cities, data transparency is lacking in rural areas.

In recent years, with the rise of environmental awareness in Ukraine, civil society pressure to improve air quality has also grown. Many municipalities have launched neighborhood-level air quality monitoring initiatives by setting up volunteer sensor networks and conducting public awareness campaigns through social media and mobile applications. However, these initiatives will have limited impact unless they are reinforced by strong legislation at the central level.

In conclusion, while Ukraine has basic legislation on air quality, it faces serious challenges in implementation. The integration process with the European Union offers important opportunities for updating legislation and increasing institutional capacity. However, effective implementation will require strengthening local governments, modernizing monitoring systems, and ensuring active public participation. Air pollution is a strategic issue that directly affects not only Ukraine’s environmental but also its social and economic development goals. Therefore, updating legislation is as vital as ensuring that these rules are implemented effectively and fairly.

7.1.5. Other Countries

Moldova, Greece, Georgia, and Armenia, which are located on the Black Sea Basin or in geographical areas close to this region, are countries at different stages of development in terms of environmental policies and air quality legislation. Each of these countries is developing air pollution control strategies in accordance with its own economic, geographical, and political realities. Below, the legal regulations, standards, and implementation capacities related to air quality in these four countries are examined in a comparative manner.

Moldova is a country that cooperates closely with the European Union but is not a member of the EU. Therefore, its environmental legislation is largely structured with the aim of aligning with EU directives. The legal framework for air quality is established by the 1997 “Law on the Protection of the Environment” and the 2011 “Law on the Reduction of Impacts on Atmospheric Air.” These laws cover limit values for air pollutants, emission permit processes, and air quality monitoring methods.

The air quality monitoring network in Moldova is operated by the Environmental Quality Monitoring Service. While there are several automatic monitoring stations in the capital city of Chisimau, data gaps in rural areas are notable. Pollutants such as PM10, NO₂, SO₂, and O₃ are monitored; however, due to limited technological infrastructure, measurement results cannot be provided to the public in real-time or continuously.

Moldova has launched various reforms since 2020 to modernize its air quality monitoring system and comply with the EU’s Air Quality Directive 2008/50/EC. However, the development of implementation capacity is still progressing slowly due to limited budget and lack of expertise. In this context, Moldova is receiving technical support from the EU and participating in cross-border cooperation projects.

Georgia has signed a Partnership Agreement with the European Union and has committed to aligning its environmental policies with EU standards. The legal framework for air quality is established by the 1999 Environmental Protection Law and the National Program for Improving Air Quality, which was updated in 2017. Georgia still uses some of the old Soviet standards but is continuing the transition to EU directives through new reforms.

Air quality monitoring activities in the country are carried out by the National Environment Agency. While there are several modern measuring stations in the capital Tbilisi, the monitoring infrastructure across the country is weak. Pollutants such as PM10, NO₂, and SO₂ are monitored; however, data is reported at limited intervals.

Most industrial facilities in Georgia are not subject to environmental permitting processes. This results in weak emission control. In addition, transportation-related emissions are a serious problem in large cities. Old vehicles, low-quality fuels, and traffic congestion are among the main sources of air pollution.

Georgia is working to modernize its air quality monitoring system through environmental projects supported by the EU. It is also organizing awareness campaigns to raise public awareness. However, progress is needed in terms of systematic data sharing and action plans.

In Armenia, regulations on air quality are set out in the 1994 Law on Environmental Protection and the 1997 Law on Atmospheric Air Protection. This legal framework includes principles for monitoring, permitting, and limiting pollution sources, but adequate enforcement and sanction mechanisms have not been established.

Air quality monitoring activities are carried out by the National Hydrometeorological and Monitoring Service. While there are some fixed monitoring points in the capital city of Yerevan, data on air quality in rural areas is quite limited. The parameters measured include PM10, SO₂, NO₂, and CO; however, PM2.5 and ozone measurements are not widespread.

The main sources of air pollution in Armenia are the transportation sector, solid fuel use in residential buildings, and certain metallurgical industrial facilities. Policies aimed at controlling emissions are limited. Although the transition process to Euro standards has been initiated, the large number of old vehicles reduces the effectiveness of this process. Additionally, due to the inability to modernize heating systems, PM concentrations reach serious levels during winter months.

In recent years, Armenia has developed some digital platforms to improve its environmental information systems and has increased its efforts to inform the public. However, the implementation of air quality management is limited due to institutional capacity constraints. Progress in this area is possible with stronger technical infrastructure investments and international support.

As a member of the European Union, Greece is required to fully comply with EU environmental legislation on air quality. Therefore, the standards and monitoring methods in force in the country are fully compliant with EU directives. The main law regulating air quality is the “Environmental Protection and Sustainability Law” enacted in 2000.

Greece has a highly developed air quality monitoring system. Modern air monitoring stations are located in major cities such as Athens and Thessaloniki, as well as in many regional centers. The main parameters measured include PM2.5, PM10, NOₓ, SO₂, CO, O₃, and benzene; these data are regularly shared with the public through digital platforms.

Greece effectively uses IPPC (Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control) applications to control industrial emissions and makes BAT (Best Available Techniques) criteria mandatory in environmental permit processes. Additionally, Euro 6 emission standards are implemented to reduce air pollution from transportation, and the removal of old vehicles from traffic is encouraged.

However, Greece may experience periods of ozone and PM10 exceedances, particularly during summer months. In such cases, local authorities are required to implement short-term action plans. Air quality management is carried out in integration with public health protection policies.

7.2. International Agreements and Protocols

Air pollution is an environmental problem that transcends local boundaries and has regional and global implications. Therefore, cooperation between countries is of great importance in controlling the spread of pollutants and protecting the environment and public health. This cooperation has been institutionalized through various international agreements, protocols, and environmental treaties. International environmental regimes enable countries to set common goals, share data, develop technical capacity, and implement harmonized standards related to air quality.

7.2.1. UNECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP)

The Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP), signed in 1979, is one of the first multilateral environmental agreements addressing the international transport of air pollutants. The Convention aims to prevent the transboundary transport of harmful emissions such as sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), ammonia (NH₃), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), heavy metals, and persistent organic pollutants between countries.

CLRTAP has been strengthened over time by eight separate protocols. The most well-known of these are:

1985 Helsinki Protocol (Reduction of SO₂ Emissions)

The Helsinki Protocol, signed in 1985, is one of the most significant initial steps taken at the international level in the fight against air pollution. The full name of the protocol is “Protocol on the Reduction of Sulfur Emissions or Their Transboundary Fluxes by at Least 30%.” This document was adopted in response to the severe acid rain and environmental damage that has arisen from the need for countries to take joint action on related environmental damage.

One of the main causes of acid rain is sulfur dioxide (SO₂), which is released into the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels (especially coal and fuel oil). When this gas combines with water vapor in the atmosphere, it turns into sulfuric acid and falls to the earth with rain. This has led to the acidification of soils and lakes, damage to forests, and the extinction of fish populations. The effects are not limited to the countries where the pollutants are emitted; they are carried by winds to other countries, becoming a transboundary environmental problem.

Under the Helsinki Protocol, countries have voluntarily committed to reducing SO₂ emissions by at least 30% by 1993 compared to 1980 levels. This target was calculated based on total national emissions. Among the countries that signed the Protocol are many countries in Western and Northern Europe, as well as Canada. Participating countries have followed different paths to achieve this target. For example, they have promoted the use of low-sulfur fuels, installed flue gas desulfurization systems in thermal power plants, or adopted energy efficiency-enhancing policies.

The implementation process has been supported by technical solutions, resulting in significant reductions in emissions. Some countries have gone far beyond the targeted 30% reduction, achieving reductions of up to 50% or even 70%. In this regard, the Helsinki Protocol has been a successful and exemplary initiative in the field of environmental diplomacy.

This protocol has contributed not only to reducing emissions but also to strengthening international cooperation on environmental protection, setting common goals, and raising environmental awareness. Following the Helsinki Protocol, more advanced regulations were introduced in 1994, such as the Oslo Protocol, and in 1999, the Gothenburg Protocol marked a transition to a multi-pollutant and integrated approach to air pollution.

Today, the Helsinki Protocol is recognized as a historic turning point and is regarded as a pioneering document that laid the foundations for international trust and cooperation in the transboundary fight against air pollution.

1988 Sofia Protocol (Control of NOₓ Emissions)

The 1988 Sofia Protocol, officially titled “Protocol on the Control of Nitrogen Oxide (NOₓ) Emissions or Their Transboundary Fluxes,” is one of the significant international steps taken to combat transboundary air pollution. This protocol is the second legally binding protocol adopted under the Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Convention (CLRTAP) of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE).

The main reason behind the signing of the protocol is that nitrogen oxides (NO and NO₂ – collectively referred to as NOₓ) are significant pollutants in the atmosphere. NOₓ gases are primarily produced by high-temperature combustion processes in automobile engines, power plants, and industrial facilities. These gases not only have harmful direct effects on human health but also contribute to the formation of tropospheric ozone (O₃) and acid rain through photochemical reactions in the atmosphere.

The Sofia Protocol was signed in 1988 following negotiations held in Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria, in 1987. The Protocol obliges signatory countries to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions below 1987 levels by 1994. This target is not based on a fixed percentage reduction, as in the Helsinki Protocol, but on the principle of not exceeding the base year level. This approach has made it easier for more countries to accept the obligation.

Countries that are parties to the Protocol have developed various measures to reduce NOₓ emissions. The following measures are among the most significant:

• Tightening vehicle emission standards and promoting the widespread use of catalytic converters,
• Use of low-NOₓ burners in industrial boilers,
• Improving fuel quality and transitioning to alternative fuels (natural gas, electric vehicles, etc.),
• The implementation of technologies such as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and selective catalytic reduction (SCR).

The Sofia Protocol also encourages technical cooperation, information sharing, and research activities. Under the Protocol, countries have developed joint databases and modeling systems to study the behavior of nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere, long-range transport mechanisms, and their effects on human health and the environment.

This protocol provides a concrete and actionable framework for controlling transboundary pollution caused by NOₓ emissions. It also laid the groundwork for more comprehensive multi-pollutant agreements, such as the 1999 Gothenburg Protocol, which was adopted in subsequent years.

Looking back today, the technical feasibility and political acceptance of the Sofia Protocol represent an important milestone in the development of international environmental law. Thanks to this step taken in the fight against NOₓ pollution, significant reductions in NOₓ emissions have been achieved across Europe and improvements in air quality have been observed.

However, the management of these pollutants remains important due to increasing motor vehicle use, urbanization, and industrialization. The principles and mechanisms outlined in the Sofia Protocol continue to be relevant today.

1991 Geneva VOC Protocol

The 1991 Geneva VOC Protocol, officially known as the “Protocol on the Control of Transboundary Air Pollution by Photochemical Oxidants from Photochemical Oxidants from Photochemical Oxidants by Photochemical Oxidants (VOCs),” is one of the international environmental agreements signed to combat air pollution. This protocol is the third binding protocol adopted under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP) of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE).

The primary rationale for developing this protocol is the transboundary nature of the adverse effects caused by volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere. VOCs are organic chemicals that are easily vaporized and released into the atmosphere from various sources such as gasoline vapors, solvents, paint materials, cleaning products, industrial processes, and motor vehicles. These substances, along with nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), undergo photochemical reactions under sunlight.

Signed in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1991, this protocol obligates signatory countries to control VOC emissions by selecting at least one of three core strategies. These strategies are:

1. Reduction of National Total Emissions: Signatory countries have committed to reducing total VOC emissions by at least 30% compared to 1988 levels by 1999.
2. Targeted Reduction in Key Areas: Prioritizing regions where transboundary transport is significant, the protocol aims to reduce VOC emissions in these areas.
3. Technical Measures for Stationary and Mobile Sources: The control of emissions from industrial activities, transportation, and consumer products through technology- and management-based methods has been encouraged.

The Protocol requires that emission reductions be not only quantitative but also technically feasible. In this context, the signatory countries have implemented the following measures:

• Transition to products with low VOC content in solvent use,
• Installation of vapor recovery systems (e.g., at gasoline stations),
• Use of catalytic converters in motor vehicles and stricter emission standards,
• Widespread adoption of technologies such as closed-loop solvent systems, filtration, and oxidation systems in industrial facilities.

Additionally, the protocol parties have undertaken tasks such as preparing emission inventories, sharing data, conducting scientific research, informing the public, and developing policy monitoring mechanisms. In this regard, the protocol not only establishes legal obligations but also promotes capacity building and cooperation.

The Geneva Protocol on Transboundary Air Pollution is a major milestone in the fight against transboundary photochemical air pollution. Thanks to the Protocol, significant reductions in tropospheric ozone levels have been achieved, particularly in Western and Central European countries, thereby reducing harm to human health and agricultural production.

Still in effect today, this protocol laid the groundwork for the 1999 Gothenburg Protocol, which introduced integrated strategies addressing pollutants such as VOCs, NOₓ, and SO₂ in a comprehensive manner.

In conclusion, the 1991 Geneva VOC Protocol stands as a successful initiative exemplifying international cooperation, technical capacity, and target-oriented policy development in air quality management.

1998 Heavy Metals Protocol

The 1998 Heavy Metals Protocol, officially titled the “Protocol on the Control of Pollution Caused by Transboundary Long-Range Transmission of Heavy Metals,” is one of the important environmental regulations adopted under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP) of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). The Protocol was signed in Aarhus, Denmark, in 1998.

This protocol aims to control the release of heavy metals such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg), which have transboundary effects, into the atmosphere. These metals enter the air through industrial activities, the burning of fossil fuels, waste incineration facilities, and certain agricultural practices, and can travel long distances before reaching soil, water, and the food chain.

Heavy metals are extremely harmful to both the environment and public health. They can enter the body through inhalation, drinking water, and food. Lead, in particular, negatively affects nervous system development in children, while cadmium can cause kidney damage and mercury can lead to permanent nervous system disorders.

The 1998 Heavy Metals Protocol has imposed binding obligations on countries to reduce the spread of these pollutants. The main objectives of the Protocol are as follows:

1. Reducing heavy metal emissions to the lowest possible levels using the best available techniques (BAT),
2. Implementation of strict emission standards for new sources,
3. Restricting or banning the use of heavy metals in certain products,
4. Reducing fuels (especially high-sulfur coal and fuel oil) that cause heavy metals to be released into the atmosphere,
5. Establishing emission monitoring, reporting, and public information systems.

Under the Protocol, countries have developed various technical and administrative measures to reduce heavy metal emissions. For example:

• Promoting the use of unleaded gasoline,
• Use of filtration and flue gas treatment technologies in the metallurgy sector,
• Installation of gas cleaning systems in waste incineration facilities,
• Imposing restrictions on the use of mercury thermometers and fluorescent lamps, among other measures.

Additionally, the protocol was revised in 2012 to align with evolving scientific and technological knowledge. With this revision, the obligations under the protocol were clarified, and additional elements such as product-based regulations, best practice guidelines, emission factors, and data reporting templates were introduced.

Today, the 1998 Heavy Metals Protocol is recognized as one of the key references in the fight against heavy metal pollution in Europe and North America. Significant reductions in lead, cadmium, and mercury emissions have been achieved in countries that have ratified the protocol. For example:

• A reduction of up to 70% in lead emissions,
• A reduction of more than 50% in mercury and cadmium emissions has been reported.

The Protocol is regarded as a successful international example where the direct link between the environment and human health is acknowledged and scientifically data guides policy-making.

In conclusion, the 1998 Heavy Metals Protocol marks a significant turning point in controlling toxic metal emissions that threaten human health. By providing both technology-based solutions and guidance for policymakers, this protocol represents an important step toward supporting sustainability in air quality management.

1999 Gothenburg Protocol (Integrated Approach to Pollution Causing Acidification, Ozone, and Particulate Matter)

The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol, officially titled the “Protocol on a Multipollutant Integrated Approach to Reduce Pollutants Causing Acidification, Ozone Formation, and Particulate Matter Pollution,” is an international agreement marking a turning point in the fight against transboundary air pollution in Europe. This protocol was signed in 1999 in Gothenburg, Sweden, under the Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Convention (CLRTAP) of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE).

The most distinctive feature of the Gothenburg Protocol is that it is the first international document to address different pollutants that cause air pollution within a single framework and in relation to each other. While previous protocols (e.g., Helsinki, Sofia, and Geneva) focused on each pollutant (SO₂, NOₓ, VOC, etc.) separately, the Gothenburg Protocol takes a holistic approach to the combined effects of these pollutants (acidification, ozone formation, particulate matter pollution).

The Protocol aims to reduce emissions of four key air pollutants:

1. Sulfur dioxide (SO₂): Causes acid rain.
2. Nitrogen oxides (NOₓ): Play a role in both acidification and the formation of tropospheric ozone.
3. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): Produce ozone at ground level through photochemical reactions.
4. Ammonia (NH₃): An agricultural pollutant that contributes to the formation of particulate matter.

The primary objective of the Gothenburg Protocol is to significantly reduce the total national emissions of these four pollutants by 2005, compared to a specified reference year (typically 1990 or 1995). Country-specific emission ceilings have been established; these ceilings are shaped according to the environmental impacts of the pollutants and the country’s technical and economic capacity. In this context, the protocol:

• Inclusive,
• Flexible,
• Science-based, and
• Technology-based.

The signatory countries have adopted various strategies to achieve these goals:

• Transition to clean energy (natural gas, renewable energy sources),
• High-efficiency industrial filtration systems,
• Improving fertilizer management in agriculture,
• Tightening of motor vehicle emission standards, among other measures, have been widely implemented.

One of the strongest aspects of the Gothenburg Protocol is that it takes into account not only environmental impacts but also the consequences for public health. Tropospheric ozone and particulate matter have been linked to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, the protocol is important not only from an environmental protection perspective but also from a public health policy perspective.

The Protocol has also provided indirect benefits in the fight against climate change. For example, emission reduction policies have improved energy efficiency, reduced fossil fuel use, and lowered emissions of certain greenhouse gases.

The Gothenburg Protocol was revised in 2012. This revision included:

• New emission ceilings have been set for the 2020 targets,
• including short-lived climate pollutants such as black carbon,
• Advanced monitoring and reporting mechanisms have been put in place.

As of today, the Gothenburg Protocol has become one of the cornerstones of air quality management in Europe, achieving significant successes in reducing emissions. For example:

• SO₂ emissions have decreased by over 80% compared to 1990 levels,
• NOₓ and VOC emissions have decreased by over 50%,
• Ammonia emissions, although more difficult to control, are showing a decreasing trend.

In conclusion, the 1999 Gothenburg Protocol has been a pioneer in the development of integrated policies to combat multi-pollutant air pollution, representing a contemporary approach that addresses environmental sustainability and public health together. The Protocol serves as a strong example of how global environmental issues can be effectively addressed through the combination of advanced environmental technologies and strong international cooperation.

CLRTAP has evolved into a more inclusive platform, expanding beyond Western European countries to include Eastern European, Caucasus, and Central Asian countries. Although Türkiye has not yet ratified the agreement, several countries in the Black Sea Basin (e.g., Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Georgia) are parties to the agreement and contribute to regional air quality objectives.

7.2.2. Paris Climate Agreement (Paris Agreement)

The Paris Climate Agreement is one of the most comprehensive and historic agreements aimed at combating climate change on a global scale. It was adopted in 2015 at the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Paris, the capital of France, and entered into force in 2016. The agreement, which was signed by more than 190 countries, establishes a common commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and limit global temperature increases.

The primary objective of the Paris Agreement is to establish a global action plan encompassing all countries to keep the global average temperature increase below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and, if possible, limit it to 1.5°C. This target is of critical importance to prevent the irreversible effects of climate change. The agreement aims to prevent threats such as sea level rise, drought, forest fires, extreme weather events, and biodiversity loss.

The agreement is implemented through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) set by each country. Each country submits a plan that includes emission reduction, adaptation, and sustainable development targets in line with its own capacity and circumstances. These plans are updated every five years, and countries are encouraged to set more ambitious targets over time. The Paris Agreement recognizes the different responsibilities of developed and developing countries but requires all countries to contribute to the process.

Under the Paris Agreement, developed countries are expected to provide climate finance to developing countries. In this context:

• Financing is provided through mechanisms such as the Green Climate Fund (GCF),
• technology transfer, knowledge sharing and capacity development activities are supported.

The goal was to mobilize at least $100 billion annually in climate finance by 2020. This support is being used for both emission reduction (mitigation) and climate change adaptation measures.

Although the Paris Agreement does not contain provisions directly related to air quality, measures taken to combat climate change also reduce air pollution. In particular:

• Reducing fossil fuel consumption,
• Promoting clean energy sources (solar, wind, hydrogen),
• Developing low-emission transportation systems,
• Improving energy efficiency in industry, among other measures, reduce both greenhouse gases and air pollutants (PM, NO₂, SO₂, VOC, etc.).

Therefore, the Paris Agreement also contributes to protecting public health, improving ecosystems, and ensuring climate-environment-policy coherence.

Countries that have ratified the Paris Agreement are restructuring their national legislation and strategic plans to achieve these goals. In this context:

• Climate laws are being drafted,
• Emissions trading systems (ETS) are being implemented,

The majority of countries in the Black Sea Basin have ratified the Paris Agreement and made various climate commitments. Türkiye ratified the agreement in 2021 and adopted a net zero emissions target for 2053. European Union member countries such as Bulgaria, Romania, and Greece have made their Paris targets more ambitious in line with EU climate policies. Countries such as Georgia, Moldova, Armenia, and Ukraine have also developed national climate plans and initiated transformations in carbon-intensive sectors.

These countries are developing policies to reduce emissions in sectors such as agriculture, energy, transportation, industry, and waste management; and are enhancing their capacities through access to climate finance mechanisms.

The Paris Agreement is a historic step based on the principles of global solidarity and shared responsibility in the fight against the climate crisis. However, to achieve the targets:

• Commitments must be strengthened over time,
• Transparent monitoring of implementation,
• And support for developing countries must be increased.

Climate scientists state that global greenhouse gas emissions must be reduced by at least 45% by 2030 in order to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C. For this reason, the Paris Agreement is not only a legal document, but also a call for global transformation.

7.2.3. Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is the first legally binding international agreement on climate change. It was adopted during the 3rd Conference of the Parties (COP3) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) held in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997, and entered into force in 2005. The Protocol requires developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in line with their historical responsibilities.

The most important goal of the Kyoto Protocol is to reduce the total greenhouse gas emissions of developed countries by at least 5% compared to 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012. This target covers six key greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆).

The Protocol is based on the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities.” According to this principle:

• Developed countries (Annex I countries), which are responsible for the majority of greenhouse gas emissions during the industrialization process, have committed to binding targets.
• Developing countries, on the other hand, have not been required to meet binding targets for emission reductions, but are encouraged to make voluntary contributions.

The Kyoto Protocol has developed three core market-based mechanisms to ensure the flexible implementation of emission reduction targets:

1. Carbon Trading: A country can sell its emission rights to another country. This allows for economic efficiency while maintaining the total global limit.
2. Joint Implementation (JI): A developed country can contribute to its own targets by implementing a greenhouse gas reduction project in another developed country or in a transition economy (e.g., Eastern European countries).
3. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Enables developed countries to reduce emissions by developing environmentally friendly projects in developing countries. This mechanism also supports sustainable development.

The first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol covered the years 2008–2012. Following this period, an update was made in Doha, Qatar, in 2012 to establish longer-term commitments to combat climate change, and the second commitment period was launched with the Doha Amendment (2013–2020). With this amendment, emission reduction targets were updated; however, some major countries (such as the United States, Canada, Japan, and Russia) did not join the second commitment period.

The Kyoto Protocol is the first legally binding global step in the fight against climate change. Thanks to the Protocol:

• Awareness of the need for emission reductions has increased,
• Investments in environmentally friendly technologies have been encouraged,
• Hundreds of projects in areas such as renewable energy and energy efficiency have been implemented in developing countries.

However, there have also been criticisms regarding the effectiveness of the Protocol:

• The absence of major greenhouse gas emitters like the United States from the protocol,
• The exclusion of major developing economies from binding targets,
• The voluntary participation of countries responsible for a significant portion of global emissions,
• The limited scope of emission reductions at the global level, among other reasons, have resulted in the targeted reduction rates being achieved only to a limited extent.

Many countries bordering the Black Sea have ratified the Kyoto Protocol and made various contributions. For example:

• Romania and Bulgaria have directed investments toward emission-reducing measures in the industrial and energy sectors to fulfill their Kyoto obligations during their accession to the European Union.
• Türkiye joined the protocol in 2009 but did not commit to binding targets for the first and second commitment periods.

• Ukraine has gained economic benefits through emissions trading, focusing particularly on energy efficiency projects.
• Georgia, Moldova, and Armenia have supported renewable energy projects by utilizing the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).

This process has contributed to shaping the national environmental legislation of countries in the region and enhancing their capacity to develop emissions inventories.

The Kyoto Protocol was an important starting point in climate policy, but due to its limited scope, it was eventually replaced by the Paris Climate Agreement in the long term. The Paris Agreement has ensured broader participation by covering all countries and adopting a flexible and voluntary approach. However, the Kyoto Protocol’s infrastructure remains one of the cornerstones of global climate policy.

The Kyoto Protocol is one of the turning points in the history of environmental protection, as it ensured that the first concrete steps were taken against climate change through international cooperation. It aimed to establish a balance between the environment and the economy through mechanisms such as emissions trading, encouraging countries to develop more responsible, transparent, and sustainable policies. Although we have now entered a new phase with the Paris Agreement, the Kyoto Protocol’s infrastructure remains one of the cornerstones of global climate policy.

7.2.4. The Barcelona Convention

The Barcelona Convention is an important international agreement established to protect the Mediterranean Sea from pollution and has pioneered regional environmental cooperation models worldwide. Officially known as the “Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution,” it was first signed in Barcelona in 1976 and entered into force in 1978. This convention forms the legal basis for the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP), developed under the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

In 1995, the agreement was revised to adopt a stronger environmental management approach and renamed the “Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean.” With this revision, the agreement now encompasses not only pollution prevention but also the protection of marine and coastal ecosystems, the promotion of sustainable development, and the right fight against climate change.

The primary objective of the Barcelona Convention is to ensure the quality of water, biological diversity, and sustainability of the Mediterranean basin. In line with this objective, the countries that are parties to the convention:

• Reduce the input of land-based pollutants into the marine environment,
• Enhance cooperation in emergency environmental incidents,
• Ensuring control over seabed activities,
• Protecting biological diversity and natural habitats,
• Protecting coastlines from unplanned development,

• Developing joint measures on issues such as climate change, plastic pollution, and fishing.

To enhance the effectiveness of the Barcelona Convention, seven thematic protocols have been signed and implemented under the Convention. These protocols focus on specific pollution sources and environmental threats, thereby ensuring the detailed implementation of measures:

• Land-Based Pollution Protocol (LBS Protocol) – Adopted in 1976 and revised in 1996. It aims to prevent pollutants from land-based sources such as rivers, sewage systems, industrial discharges, and agricultural runoff from entering the Mediterranean Sea. It primarily covers substances such as nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus), heavy metals, petroleum derivatives, and organic pollutants. This protocol promotes the establishment of integrated pollution control and good environmental status objectives.
• Emergency Response and Cooperation Protocol (PREV-MAR Protocol) – This protocol regulates response, preparedness, and international cooperation in cases of oil and hazardous substance spills from ships. Contracting parties are obligated to establish national plans for environmental emergencies, share information, and provide technical assistance to one another when necessary.
• Protocol on Pollution Caused by Activities on the Seabed (Dumping Protocol) – Signed in 1976 and revised in 1995. This protocol regulates the disposal of waste and other substances into the seabed or water column in the Mediterranean Sea. It aims to prohibit the discharge of toxic and hazardous waste into the marine environment. Waste discharges into the seabed are now subject to very strict regulations.
• Special Protection Areas and Biological Diversity Protocol (SPA/BD Protocol) – Signed in 1982 and revised in 1995. This protocol aims to protect the marine and coastal biodiversity of the Mediterranean and to establish and manage protected areas. Specially Protected Areas (SPAs) can be designated, and joint lists are prepared for the protection of rare and endangered species.
• Protocol on the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes – Signed in 1996, this protocol regulates the transport, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste among Mediterranean countries. It also promotes the prevention and reduction of waste production and the development of environmentally friendly technologies. The protocol aims to enhance environmental safety in waste management, particularly in developing coastal countries.
• Coastal Zone Management Protocol (ICZM Protocol) – Signed in 2008 and entered into force in 2011, this protocol aims to ensure the sustainable management of coastal areas. It seeks to provide comprehensive solutions to issues such as land use planning, protection of natural areas, adaptation to climate change, and coastal erosion. It also calls for the management of pressures from tourism, transportation, and urbanization in a manner consistent with ecosystem health.
• Air Pollution and Atmospheric Transport Protocol – This new protocol, which has not yet entered into force, is working to limit the atmospheric transport of air pollutants and ozone precursors in the Mediterranean region. The goal is to reduce region-specific impacts and health risks.

The Barcelona Convention operates through cooperation, technical support, and regular reporting systems among contracting parties. Under the monitoring mechanisms:

• Environmental status assessment reports (SoED),
• Joint monitoring programs (IMAP),
• Integrated coastal management strategies are developed.

Additionally, the Barcelona Convention Secretariat (UNEP/MAP – MED POL program), responsible for implementing the Convention, provides regional cooperation, capacity-building programs, and financial support.

The Barcelona Convention has been signed by 21 Mediterranean countries and the European Union. Türkiye became a party to the Convention in 1982 and has signed all subsequent thematic protocols. Türkiye has developed various practices in areas such as special protection areas, coastal planning, urban wastewater treatment investments, and marine litter management.

Bulgaria and Romania, which have coastlines on the Black Sea, have also integrated the protocols within the framework of the European Union’s obligations as EU members. Countries such as Georgia and Ukraine, despite being outside the Mediterranean region, have shown interest in similar applications developed within the Barcelona model.

The Barcelona Convention is one of the most established and comprehensive examples of regional marine agreements. From an international environmental management perspective:

• By adding thematic depth through protocols,
• Promoting multilateral cooperation,
• And its broad scope, covering areas from pollution prevention to biodiversity conservation, it is recognized as a model.

In the coming years, the Barcelona Convention is expected to produce more integrated and digitalized solutions to address new threats such as climate change, microplastic pollution, and emissions from maritime transport.

7.2.5. Stockholm Convention – Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

The Stockholm Convention is an environmental treaty aimed at controlling, at the global level, persistent organic pollutants (POPs) that pose a threat to human health and the environment, are not readily broken down in nature, can be transported over long distances, and accumulate in living tissues, potentially causing serious toxic effects. Signed in Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, in 2001 and entered into force in 2004, this treaty is one of the most important milestones in international efforts to ensure the safe management of chemicals and waste. POPs are man-made compounds, such as pesticides, industrial chemicals, and toxins produced as byproducts. These substances can persist in the atmosphere, water, and soil for long periods, accumulating through the food chain and being transferred to humans and other living organisms. The most significant observed health effects include cancer, immune system disorders, hormonal and neurological disorders, and adverse effects on fertility.

The primary objective of the Agreement is to ban the production and use of these hazardous chemicals, safely eliminate existing stocks and waste, and promote the transition to environmentally friendly alternatives. In this regard, the contracting parties are obligated to prepare national action plans, conduct regular inventory studies, raise public awareness, support scientific research, and fulfill their reporting obligations. The Stockholm Convention initially covered twelve priority POPs substances known as the “Dirty Dozen.” These substances include pesticides such as DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, and heptachlor; industrial chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and hexachlorobenzene; and toxic byproducts such as dioxins and furans intentionally produced during manufacturing. The Convention has expanded its scope over the years to include numerous new POPs substances, thereby establishing a broader global control network. Among these new substances are flame retardants, perfluorinated compounds, and plastic additives—chemicals commonly used in modern industry but proven to be harmful to human health and the environment.

The most striking feature of POPs is their ability to travel thousands of kilometers through the atmosphere without being bound by geographical boundaries and to be detected even in the most remote regions of the world, including the polar regions. Therefore, measures taken against these substances must be implemented not only at the national level but also on a global scale to be effective. The monitoring mechanisms established under the Convention track the performance of the signatory countries and provide technical and financial support to meet the capacity development needs of developing countries. This support is mostly financed by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), while the implementation processes are carried out under the supervision of United Nations agencies such as UNEP.

Türkiye signed the Stockholm Convention in 2001 and officially became a party to it in 2009. Within this scope, Türkiye has prepared a National Implementation Plan and, over time, updated it to develop various projects in areas such as waste management, reducing pesticide use in agriculture, and disposing of old industrial equipment. Other countries bordering the Black Sea (e.g., Romania, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia) have also become parties to the Convention and implemented their own national implementation plans. These countries face common challenges, particularly in priority areas such as the disposal of old electrical transformers containing PCBs, stockpiles of banned pesticides used in agriculture, and industrial waste containing POPs. As members of the European Union, Bulgaria and Romania fulfill their obligations regarding POPs not only under the Stockholm Convention but also within the framework of the EU’s Chemicals Management legislation (REACH).

The POP Review Committee (POPRC), established to enhance the effectiveness of the Convention, evaluates new candidate pollutants based on scientific criteria and recommends their inclusion in the Convention. This ensures that the Convention is updated in line with scientific developments, enabling chemicals posing risks to be identified at an early stage and incorporated into the global policy-making process. In recent years, new-generation POPs substances such as perfluorinated compounds (PFAS) known for their water-repellent properties and plastic additives have become the subject of international debate and have been proposed for inclusion in the treaty.

Today, the Stockholm Convention is seen as a multifaceted global strategy that is not only relevant to environmental policy but also to public health and sustainable development goals. The fight against POPs is directly linked to strategies for food safety, climate change mitigation, industrial transformation, and circular economy strategies. Therefore, the implementation of the convention should not be limited to environmental ministries; it should adopt a holistic approach encompassing many sectors such as health, agriculture, industry, and education.

The Stockholm Convention is one of the most important legal instruments requiring transboundary cooperation in the management of chemicals. To ensure the more effective implementation of this convention in the future, priority steps will include enhancing technical capacity in developing countries, strengthening chemical safety infrastructure, improving data collection systems, and raising public awareness. Additionally, in line with environmental justice principles, developing special policy mechanisms to protect vulnerable groups most affected by chemical pollution (children, pregnant women, rural communities) is of critical importance.

7.2.6. Other Important Agreements

Oslo-Paris Commission (OSPAR)

The Oslo-Paris Commission, or OSPAR, is an international organization established on the basis of the Oslo and Paris Conventions, which are among the most comprehensive regional agreements for the protection of the marine environment in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean. The name OSPAR comes from the 1972 Oslo Convention (on the control of marine pollution from land-based sources) and the 1974 Paris Convention (on the control of marine pollution from land-based sources). These two conventions were merged in 1992 and updated in 1998 with the OSPAR Convention, which adopted a comprehensive approach to environmental management.

OSPAR is a model of cooperation in the field of marine environment protection. Member countries include the European Union, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Spain, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland, Portugal, Ireland, and the Benelux countries, which are located along the northeastern Atlantic coast. The European Commission is also represented as a party in the OSPAR Commission. The Commission facilitates policy coordination among these states and the EU regarding the protection of the marine environment and develops common objectives.

The primary objective of the OSPAR Convention is to reduce all types of pollution originating from land and sea, protect marine ecosystems, and ensure the sustainability of biological diversity. In this context, OSPAR monitors and limits the impacts of sectors such as industrial activities, agriculture, wastewater discharges, maritime transport, and oil and gas extraction on the marine environment. Additionally, it develops strategies to address important pollutants such as radioactive substances, heavy metals, organic pollutants, microplastics, and nutrients.

The objectives set out in the Convention are grouped under five main thematic strategies: protection of biological diversity, prevention of eutrophication, control of hazardous substances, reduction of radioactive pollution, and management of the environmental impact of oil and gas activities. Under these headings, the contracting parties fulfill numerous responsibilities, including regular data collection, joint reporting, publication of assessment reports, and implementation of action plans.

One of the strongest aspects of the OSPAR Commission is its science-based decision-making mechanism. Changes in the marine environment are recorded through systematic monitoring programs and are shared with the public through the “North-East Atlantic Environmental Assessment Reports” (Quality Status Reports – QSR) published at regular intervals. These reports include trends in pollution levels in the marine environment over time, the effectiveness of measures taken, and risk analyses for the future. Additionally, OSPAR contributes to EU environmental policies by working in alignment with the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD).

In recent years, new environmental issues such as microplastic pollution, marine litter, the impact of climate change on marine ecosystems, and the effective management of marine protected areas have come to the forefront of OSPAR’s agenda. In this context, efforts are underway to establish a network of marine protected areas in the Northeast Atlantic and to take steps toward ensuring that at least 30% of marine habitats within the OSPAR region are effectively protected.

Another important development is the integration of climate change and ocean acidification into OSPAR strategies. Issues such as the impact of temperature increases on the distribution of marine life, the threat posed by sea level changes to coastal ecosystems, and the sustainability of the oceans’ carbon sink function now feature prominently in OSPAR’s action plans.

OSPAR is also a structure that embraces the principles of environmental governance and transparency. It works in close collaboration with civil society organizations, universities, and scientists, and encourages stakeholder participation in decision-making processes. This approach has transformed OSPAR from a purely technical platform into a mechanism that promotes environmental democracy and gains public support for the protection of the marine environment.

In conclusion, the OSPAR Convention is one of the most effective regional environmental cooperation initiatives developed for the protection of the Northeast Atlantic. Reducing polluting, preventing the release of hazardous substances into the marine environment, protecting biodiversity, and ensuring the sustainable use of marine resources are among OSPAR’s primary objectives. This structure also provides a model for environmental governance that can be adopted by other marine basins, such as the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Baltic Sea, to enhance the effectiveness of regional environmental cooperation.

MARPOL

MARPOL is the most comprehensive and widely accepted international treaty aimed at protecting the marine environment from pollution caused by ships. Officially known as the “International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,” MARPOL was adopted in 1973 under the auspices of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and updated in 1978 with an additional protocol, hence the common reference to MARPOL 73/78.

The Convention aims to protect the marine environment from various pollutants such as oil, chemical substances, garbage, sewage, harmful liquids, and air pollutants that may result from ship operations or accidents.

MARPOL includes six technical annexes, each regulating specific types of pollutants and prevention methods. These are as follows:

• Annex I: Provisions for the prevention of the discharge of oil and oil derivatives into the sea,
• Annex II: Control of the effects of harmful liquid chemical substances (in bulk) on the marine environment,
• Annex III: Rules for the transport of harmful substances in packaged form,
• Appendix IV: Control of sewage from ships,
• Appendix V: Prevention of the discharge of solid waste and garbage into the sea,
• Annex VI: Limitations on ship emissions (NOₓ, SO₂, particulate matter) and gases harmful to the ozone layer.

These technical annexes cover not only shipbuilding and equipment standards but also ship operation, maintenance processes, waste management, record-keeping, and port reception services. Thus, MARPOL is based on both preventive and corrective environmental management systems.

The Convention has undergone numerous revisions over time, particularly to reduce the environmental footprint of the shipping industry and ensure the safe and sustainable operation of ships. For example, the sulfur limits for fuel introduced by MARPOL Annex VI were set at 0.5% globally as of 2020, and this regulation has encouraged the use of low-sulfur fuel in the maritime transport sector. Additionally, within Emission Control Areas (ECA), this limit has been reduced to 0.1% in certain regions.

MARPOL has also taken pioneering steps in reducing greenhouse gas emissions from ships. Mechanisms such as ship energy efficiency design indices (EEDI), ship energy efficiency operational plans (SEEMP), and carbon intensity indicators aim to reduce the carbon footprint of ships. In this regard, MARPOL has become one of the fundamental tools defining the responsibilities of the shipping industry in the fight against climate change.

Under the Convention, contracting states are expected to establish inspection mechanisms to ensure compliance with the rules and to carry out effective port state controls to prevent violations. Additionally, ships are required to maintain records such as the “Oil Record Book” and “Garbage Record Book,” which document all discharges into the sea, and to have emergency response plans in place.

The regional impacts of the MARPOL Convention are becoming even more critical in semi-enclosed seas such as the Black Sea. Due to its limited water circulation, pollutants discharged into the sea can remain there for longer periods and cause serious ecosystem damage. For this reason, the provisions of the MARPOL Convention are of great importance for coastal states such as Türkiye, Bulgaria, Romania, Georgia, Ukraine, and Russia. These countries have ratified the Convention and taken steps such as strengthening the monitoring of ship traffic, improving waste management infrastructure, and establishing waste reception facilities in ports.

In particular, bringing Black Sea ports into compliance with MARPOL requirements will be decisive in reducing issues such as oil pollution and waste disposal from ships.

International support mechanisms and efforts aligned with the European Union’s marine environment directives are enhancing the regional applicability of MARPOL.

In conclusion, MARPOL is not merely a technical maritime convention; it is a vital environmental agreement for the protection of the seas and the provision of sustainable maritime transport. Cooperation between ship operators, port authorities, environment and transportation ministries, and civil society organizations is critical for the effective implementation of MARPOL provisions in the field. Furthermore, the continued updating of the convention to address evolving environmental challenges will ensure the integration of the maritime sector with global environmental policies.

7.3. Black Sea Cooperation Organization (BSEC) and Environmental Approaches

The Black Sea region has been a meeting point for different cultures, languages, trade routes, and geopolitical interactions throughout history. This strategic importance brought with it the need for more structured cooperation in the region by the end of the Cold War and the emergence of a new international environment, it became inevitable for countries bordering the Black Sea to establish closer relations on economic, political, and environmental issues. With this vision, the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization (BSEC) was officially established on June 25, 1992, with the Istanbul Declaration.

This initiative, launched under Türkiye’s leadership, quickly gained positive response in the region; the organization acquired international status in 1999, thereby achieving a permanent institutional identity. Headquartered in Istanbul, BSEC currently comprises 13 full member countries bordering the Black Sea Basin and having historical, economic, or strategic ties with the region. These countries are: Türkiye, Albania, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Armenia, Georgia, Moldova, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Ukraine, Greece, and North Macedonia (observer and associate statuses may vary).

The primary objective of BSEC is to promote regional peace, stability, and prosperity among member countries through the development of economic cooperation. However, this goal is not limited to increasing trade and investment. It also aims to enhance inter-state dialogue and capacity for joint action in a wide range of areas, including sustainable development, environmental protection, energy efficiency, improvement of transportation infrastructure, cultural exchange, and knowledge sharing.

BSEC is also a unique platform in that it brings together countries with different economic levels, political systems, and development models. This diversity presents both challenges and great potential for the organization. Member countries come together in pursuit of common interests, aiming to jointly address the region’s shared challenges. In this regard, BSEC ensures that the Black Sea is viewed not merely as a body of water but as a shared living space, economic network, and ecosystem.

Since its establishment, BSEC has been working to build a multi-layered culture of cooperation among the countries in the region through ministerial-level meetings, technical committee work, working groups, and multi-stakeholder projects. Thanks to this structure, mutual understanding and trust are established on regional issues, and coordination between countries’ national policies is ensured.

In conclusion, the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization (BSEC) stands out as a comprehensive and multifaceted regional organization established not only to develop economic relations but also to create a sustainable future in the areas of environment, energy, transportation, security, health, and culture. In an era where platforms like BSEC are becoming increasingly important in the face of the complex global challenges of the 21st century, the organization’s role is growing day by day.

7.3.1. The Ecological Vulnerability and Environmental Threats of the Black Sea

The Black Sea is one of the most sensitive marine ecosystems in the world in terms of its geographical and ecological characteristics. With an area of approximately 436,000 km², this semi-enclosed inland sea is of great economic and ecological importance to the countries surrounding Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. However, this importance also brings with it serious environmental responsibilities. The Black Sea’s natural structure and human-induced pressures have rendered this region ecologically extremely fragile.

The Black Sea has limited connectivity with other major seas. It is connected to the Mediterranean Sea via the Bosphorus Strait and from there to the Aegean Sea. These narrow straits severely limit water exchange. As a result, oxygen levels in the lower layers of the Black Sea are very low, and toxic gases such as hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) accumulate in these layers. This makes deep-sea life nearly impossible. Over 90% of the Black Sea is characterized by these low-oxygen conditions, with life sustained only in the upper surface layers.

Large rivers flowing through countries bordering the Black Sea—such as the Danube, Dniester, Dnieper, Don, and Kızılırmak—collect water from a very large basin. These basins are covered with thousands of industrial facilities, agricultural areas, and settlements. As a result, the water reaching the Black Sea carries agricultural chemicals, industrial waste, heavy metals, and domestic pollution.

• Agricultural pollution: Excessive use of fertilizers causes nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus to reach the sea. This leads to excessive algae growth (eutrophication) and threatens underwater life.
• Industrial and energy facilities: Petrochemical, metallurgy, energy production, and port activities result in the release of significant amounts of toxic chemicals and particulate matter into water and air.
• Domestic waste: In some coastal cities, wastewater treatment systems are inadequate. As a result, untreated waste discharged into the sea poses a threat to both human health and marine ecosystems.

The Black Sea is a sea with heavy ship traffic. Oil tankers and cargo ships passing through the Istanbul and Çanakkale straits pose serious risks to maritime safety. Fuel and oil leaks from ships form a thin layer on the sea surface, blocking sunlight from reaching the water and limiting plankton photosynthesis.

In addition, invasive species transported by ballast water exert ecological pressure on the Black Sea’s native marine life. For example, the excessive proliferation of jellyfish species has significantly reduced fish stocks.

The Black Sea is also sensitive to climate change. Rising sea temperatures, sea level rise, and extreme weather events threaten both natural systems and the infrastructure of coastal cities.

Infrastructure is particularly at risk. Coastal erosion, saltwater intrusion into freshwater sources, and changes in the distribution of fishery products pose direct risks to the local population.

The Black Sea’s biodiversity was once much richer. However, over the past 50 years, there have been significant declines in both species numbers and population sizes. In particular, cod, squid, and some bottom-dwelling fish species are at risk of extinction. This situation also negatively impacts traditional fishing and the communities that rely on it for their livelihoods.

The ecological fragility of the Black Sea is an issue that must be taken seriously not only by environmental scientists but also by politicians, investors, local authorities, and citizens. This sea is not only the responsibility of coastal countries but of the entire regional basin. The ecosystem’s current state of stress makes more effective conservation policies, international cooperation, and sustainable development approaches essential.

In this context, the protection of the Black Sea is not merely an environmental concern; it is also a vital necessity for regional peace, social justice, and economic sustainability.

7.3.2. BSEC Environmental Protection Working Group: From Policy to Practice

The Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization (BSEC) has identified environmental sustainability as one of its priority objectives, alongside economic development. The Working Group on Environmental Protection, established in line with this understanding, is the organization’s main policy-making body on environmental issues. This group addresses environmental issues not merely as technical matters but as critical areas with implications for regional stability, public health, and economic development.

The Environmental Protection Working Group consists of representatives from BSEC member countries and usually includes experts appointed by environmental ministries or relevant public institutions. The group meets several times a year to:

• Assess regional environmental issues,
• Establishes the fundamental principles of common environmental policies,
• Facilitates the exchange of information and experience among member countries,
• Proposes new projects and monitors the progress of existing projects.

This working group serves as a critical coordination point for developing common solutions and taking actionable steps on issues directly affecting the ecological health of the Black Sea.

The environmental themes addressed by the BSEC Environmental Protection Working Group cover a wide range of issues. These include:

• Protection of the marine environment
• Sustainable use of water resources
• Waste management and recycling strategies
• Reducing pollution from industrial and urban sources
• Climate change adaptation policies
• Biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services
• Environmental education and awareness activities

are among the key issues. The strategies developed under these headings are designed to be both locally implementable and capable of creating an impact at the regional level.

The activities proposed and guided by the Working Group typically translate into concrete projects. For example:

• Modernization of wastewater treatment systems in coastal cities,
• Establishing joint environmental monitoring systems,
• Preparation of biodiversity maps,
• Local government projects aimed at reducing carbon footprints,
• are being implemented in various application areas such as educational seminars and technical staff capacity development initiatives.

These projects are being transformed from mere recommendations on paper into actual applications implemented in member countries, thereby creating direct impacts on the quality of life of the local population.

The Working Group also acts as a bridge for the sharing and transfer of environmentally friendly technologies among member countries. Wastewater treatment technologies, air quality measurement systems, or energy efficiency applications used by developed countries are transferred to other countries through technical documents, field visits, and joint pilot projects.

Additionally, efforts such as standardizing environmental impact assessment (EIA) processes, integrating databases, and developing common environmental reporting methods contribute to the establishment of a shared environmental management culture across the region.

The BSEC Environmental Protection Working Group distinguishes itself not only through technical work but also through activities aimed at raising public awareness of environmental issues. In particular, for young people, local officials, and civil society organizations:

• Environmental education programs
• Awareness campaigns
• Joint media projects
• Digital information platforms

such activities are planned and supported. This helps strengthen the understanding that environmental protection is not solely the responsibility of governments but of the entire community.

The BSEC Environmental Protection Working Group is not merely an advisory or planning body; it functions as a mechanism through which policy is translated into action. Thanks to this group, countries around the Black Sea can respond to environmental issues not only at the national level but also through coordinated regional efforts.

7.3.3. Compliance with International Agreements and Implementation Support

The Black Sea is an ecosystem that spans the borders of multiple countries, meaning that its protection requires not only national efforts but also regional and global cooperation. Therefore, the environmental policies of countries bordering the Black Sea are not limited to their own domestic laws; they must also be in line with international environmental agreements. The Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization (BSEC) plays a crucial role in facilitating this alignment and strengthening implementation efforts.

International environmental agreements are legal documents that establish common goals, standards, and obligations among countries on environmental issues. These agreements enable countries to take coordinated and concerted action against transboundary environmental threats. In the Black Sea region, many environmental issues, particularly water and marine pollution, have a transboundary nature. Therefore, a common legal framework is of great importance for the protection of the environment.

BSEC’s environmental policies are also shaped in line with the principles and objectives of these multilateral agreements. This enhances coordination within the organization and facilitates the integration of the countries of the region into global environmental governance.

The Black Sea Basin countries are parties to various international environmental agreements. Some of the most notable ones are as follows:

• Bucharest Convention (1992): This is the most important regional agreement for the protection of the Black Sea against pollution. It covers areas such as the protection of the marine environment, the reduction of pollutant discharges, and the development of emergency response mechanisms.
• Barcelona Convention (1976; updated in 1995): Although aimed at protecting the Mediterranean Sea, some Black Sea countries are also parties to this convention and have integrated similar principles and standards into their own maritime management frameworks.
• Stockholm Convention (2001): Aims to control persistent organic pollutants (POPs). It promotes the reduction of harmful chemicals used in agriculture and industry.
• MARPOL Convention (1973/1978): This is the most important global treaty regulating the prevention of marine pollution from ships. Given the high volume of maritime traffic in the Black Sea, MARPOL is a vital document.
• Paris Agreement (2015): This agreement, which aims to reduce carbon emissions as part of efforts to combat climate change, shapes the climate adaptation and greenhouse gas reduction policies of countries in the region.

BSEC is taking significant steps to facilitate the implementation of these agreements at the regional level. Member countries— —are working to harmonize standards ( ), align reporting systems ( ), and enhance joint technical capacity ( )

, and the harmonization of reporting systems. Through these initiatives, the agreements are not merely theoretical but are becoming effective in practice.

In particular, the BSEC Environmental Protection Working Group enhances countries’ capacities by organizing information meetings, seminars, guidance documents, and pilot projects on the implementation of obligations outlined in the agreements.

Additionally, BSEC provides capacity development and implementation support to countries that are not parties to the agreements or face technical and financial constraints in complying with them. This aims to establish a more balanced and equitable structure in environmental management across the region.

Compliance with international agreements is not achieved solely through political commitments but also through concrete projects. In this regard, BSEC takes the lead in numerous environmental projects by collaborating with institutions such as the European Union, UNEP, UNDP, the World Bank, and the Black Sea Commission.

Among these projects:

• Establishing water quality monitoring networks,
• Improving wastewater management infrastructure,
• Preparing greenhouse gas inventories,
• Establishment of remote sensing and data systems for coastal management,
• Support for climate-resilient agriculture and fisheries models, among other application-based initiatives.

Compliance with international environmental agreements is not only a legal requirement for the Black Sea Basin; it is also the fundamental way to ensure the future of the sea. BSEC not only facilitates this compliance but also implements all the necessary information, technical support, and regional cooperation mechanisms to ensure that these measures are effectively implemented on the ground.

In this process, the active participation of not only governments but also municipalities, universities, the private sector, and civil society is encouraged. Thus, the objectives of the agreements are integrated with local realities, enabling the achievement of sustainable outcomes for the Black Sea.

7.3.4. International Partnerships and Project Collaborations

The environmental problems of the Black Sea are complex and multidimensional issues that are not confined to regional borders and directly or indirectly affect many countries. Therefore, it is of great importance that efforts to protect the Black Sea are carried out not only at the local or national level, but also on the basis of international partnerships. The Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization (BSEC) has established strategic partnerships with numerous international institutions and organizations in line with this understanding and actively leverages these collaborations in environmental projects.

The main international institutions with which BSEC collaborates on environmental issues are as follows:

• United Nations Development Program (UNDP): Provides technical and financial support to countries in the region to achieve sustainable development goals. It is an active partner in capacity development projects related to the environment and climate change.
• European Commission: Works closely with BSEC within the framework of the European Union’s environmental, energy, and regional development programs. Supports environmental projects through special funding mechanisms for the Black Sea region.
• Black Sea Commission (BSC): This technical body is responsible for implementing the Bucharest Convention and ensures regional coordination in the fight against marine pollution. It collaborates with BSEC on data sharing, monitoring systems, and policy recommendations.
• European Environment Agency (EEA): Provides technical support to BSEC in the collection, analysis, and reporting of environmental data around the Black Sea.
• World Bank: Through infrastructure investments and environmental financing mechanisms, it plays a role in wastewater treatment, clean energy projects, and industrial transformation programs.

The partnerships developed with these institutions provide significant contributions to the countries in the region, not only in terms of project financing but also in terms of technical knowledge sharing, expert support, and capacity building.

BSEC has successfully implemented or supported numerous multinational environmental projects in collaboration with its international partners. Some of these projects include:

• EMBLAS (Improving Environmental Monitoring in the Black Sea): This EU-funded project aims to enhance environmental monitoring systems in the Black Sea by strengthening data collection, analysis, and sharing processes related to seawater quality. BSEC provided technical and political support to this project.
• PERSEUS (Policy-oriented marine Environmental Research in the Southern European Seas): This project aims to support environmental policies in the Mediterranean and Black Seas with scientific data, and has established scientific collaborations among BSEC countries.
• Black Sea CBC Program (Cross-Border Cooperation): Funded by the EU, this program has enabled the implementation of joint environmental projects in the Black Sea region by promoting cross-border cooperation. Successful projects have been carried out in the areas of waste management, water pollution, coastal protection, and ecotourism.

These projects have not only provided technical solutions to environmental issues but also helped build trust-building relationships among the countries in the region.

Project collaborations encompass not only infrastructure investments but also investments in human resources and information systems. Under the BSEC framework and in collaboration with international partners:

• Joint environmental education and awareness programs,
• Technical training seminars for experts,
• Adaptation and dissemination of environmentally friendly technologies in the region,
• Standardization of environmental impact assessment and planning tools,
• Establishment of data sharing platforms, among other initiatives.

As a result, not only government agencies but also municipalities, universities, the private sector, and civil society organizations are becoming involved in environmental governance processes, and practices are being expanded to a broader base.

The ecological balance of the Black Sea can be protected through the joint efforts of many countries. At this point, international cooperation is not merely supportive but emerges as a transformative force. The facilitating and unifying role assumed by BSEC in this process enables the production of comprehensive solutions in line with the borderless nature of environmental issues.

Projects developed through international partnerships provide concrete steps to ensure environmental sustainability in the Black Sea Basin, while also strengthening inter-country dialogue, trust, and solidarity. Therefore, BSEC’s environmental agenda is not merely a policy document; it is also the practical implementation of a vision for a livable future.

7.3.5. Green Economy and Low-Carbon Strategies

In today’s world, where global environmental problems are becoming increasingly severe, establishing a healthy balance between economic development and environmental protection has become a necessity. In this context, the concept of green economy aims to integrate economic growth with the principles of environmental sustainability. The Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization (BSEC) also aims to be one of the pioneers of this transformation at the regional level, encouraging its members to develop low-carbon development strategies.

The green economy refers to an approach that encompasses economic activities that use natural resources efficiently, do not pollute the environment, reduce carbon emissions, and at the same time create employment. In this model, economic growth is compatible with nature, circular, fair, and long-term.

Green economy strategies for Black Sea littoral countries have the potential to generate solutions not only in terms of environmental protection but also in areas such as energy security, food security, public health, and employment. For this reason, BSEC is actively involving regional countries in the green transformation process.

BSEC focuses on the following key areas to achieve green economy objectives:

• Energy efficiency and renewable energy investments
• Reducing carbon emissions and promoting low-emission technologies
• Waste management and circular economy practices
• Green transportation and urban planning solutions
• Sustainable agriculture and forestry
• Protection of ecosystem services and sustainable use of natural capital

These issues are of strategic importance for the countries in the region and lay the groundwork for policies that will strengthen both economic growth and environmental balance.

Many countries in the Black Sea Basin are energy-dependent and fossil fuels still account for a significant share of energy production. BSEC aims to reverse this trend by:

• Assessing the potential of renewable energy sources (solar, wind, hydro, geothermal),
• Promoting energy efficiency projects,
• Improving the energy performance of public buildings and infrastructure,
• Promoting regional energy data sharing and standard development efforts.

The projects implemented within this scope reduce carbon footprints and save on energy bills.

Low-carbon development is one of the most effective approaches in combating climate change. BSEC is developing mechanisms to support the national carbon reduction targets of regional countries while also leading the integration of climate change adaptation policies. In this context:

• Electric vehicles, rail systems, and bicycle infrastructure are being promoted in transportation.
• Clean production technologies are being widely adopted in industrial facilities, and emission measurement systems are being established.
• Organic production is supported in agriculture, and efforts are made to reduce agricultural carbon emissions.
• In cities, increasing green spaces, using climate-friendly building materials, and prioritizing low-energy consumption buildings are key priorities.

Additionally, tools such as carbon trading, carbon taxes, and incentive mechanisms are on BSEC’s agenda, with information sharing and technical support provided for these systems.

Waste management plays a significant role in BSEC’s green economy strategies. Processes such as the regular collection, separation, recycling, and conversion of solid waste into energy create both environmental and economic benefits.

With the circular economy model:

• The consumption of natural resources decreases,
• The waste rate in industrial production decreases,
• New job opportunities are emerging,
• Carbon emissions are being controlled.

In this context, BSEC encourages the establishment of waste database sharing, joint recycling strategies, and cross-border waste management collaborations among member countries.

Public resources alone are insufficient to achieve green transformation goals. BSEC advocates for the active participation of the private sector in this process; it supports public-private partnerships (PPP) for green investments, environmental entrepreneurship models, green bonds, and international funds.

Additionally, common platforms are being developed to enable municipalities, universities, and civil society organizations to play a role in green economy strategies. This ensures a multi-stakeholder transformation process involving not only central governments but all actors.

The future of the Black Sea Basin depends on economic development alongside the preservation of environmental integrity. The green economy and low-carbon strategies adopted by BSEC represent an approach that successfully combines these two objectives without excluding one another.

Thanks to these strategies, natural resources are being protected, and the countries of the region are gaining a stronger position internationally by contributing to global climate goals. The green economy is not merely an environmentally friendly choice but also a more resilient, innovative, and inclusive development model. BSEC continues to play a leading role in promoting this model in the Black Sea region.

7.3.6. Sectoral Alignment and Climate Resilience

Climate change is a complex global issue that deeply affects not only the environment but also economic and social systems. These effects emerge in different sectors that form the building blocks of society, such as agriculture, transportation, industry, and tourism, and threaten the sustainable functioning of these sectors. The Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization (BSEC) is developing comprehensive policies and promoting their implementation to strengthen the sectoral adaptation of countries in the region to climate change and enhance climate resilience.

Sectoral adaptation involves making different economic activities resilient to the adverse effects of climate change, i.e., planning and implementing adaptation processes. This process should be designed by taking into account the specific risks and needs of each sector and adopting an integrated approach.

For example:

• The agriculture sector should develop crop varieties resistant to yield losses caused by changing rainfall patterns and temperature fluctuations, and optimize irrigation methods.
• The transportation sector must strengthen its infrastructure against extreme weather events and promote sustainable and climate-friendly transportation vehicles.
• The industrial sector must reduce water and energy consumption in production processes while developing emergency plans to address climate risks.
• The tourism sector must manage the impacts of climate change on natural and cultural resources and adopt sustainable tourism practices.

These adaptation efforts will enable sectors to be prepared for short-term crises and support long-term economic stability.

The Black Sea region is one of the areas most severely affected by climate change. Rising sea levels, increased extreme rainfall and drought events, temperature fluctuations, and increased storm frequency are putting various sectors in the region’s countries at risk.

BSEC aims to enhance climate resilience through the following strategies:

• Risk Analysis and Monitoring Systems: Continuous monitoring of climate risks at the regional level, data sharing, and the establishment of early warning systems are ensured. This strengthens the capacity to take preventive measures against disasters.
• Sustainable Agriculture and Water Management: Promoting drought-resistant crop varieties, expanding modern irrigation techniques, and prioritizing the efficient use of water resources.
• Infrastructure Resilience: Transportation, energy, and water infrastructure are strengthened against climate-related damage, with increased precautions in coastal and flood-prone areas.
• Environmental Protection and Restoration: The protection of natural ecosystems and the restoration of damaged areas are important as natural barriers that mitigate the effects of climate change.
• Sectoral Integration and Policy Alignment: Climate strategies developed in different sectors are made compatible and mutually supportive. This ensures that resource use and action plans are coordinated.

Sectoral alignment and climate resilience require the participation of all segments of society, not just governments. Local authorities, the private sector, academia, civil society organizations, and citizens must be involved in decision-making processes.

BSEC, for this purpose:

• Organizes education and communication programs to raise public awareness,
• Establishes dialogue platforms between stakeholders,
• Encourages the sharing of best practices,
• Establishes participatory and inclusive policy development mechanisms.

Decisions made through this approach are both more effective and ensure strong ownership in implementation.

Technology plays a crucial role in adapting to climate change. BSEC supports the widespread adoption of innovative solutions in the region. These include:

• Smart agriculture technologies (sensors, data analytics),
• Resilient infrastructure materials,
• Energy-efficient systems,
• Climate risk forecasting modeling and simulation tools,
• Digital early warning systems.

Technology transfer and joint R&D efforts play a critical role in enhancing the climate change adaptation capacities of regional countries.

Sectoral alignment and climate resilience are essential for the sustainable development of the Black Sea Basin. The strategies developed under BSEC coordination not only reduce the impacts of environmental disasters but also strengthen the resilience of the regional economy, the well-being of societies, and the health of ecosystems.

This multidimensional approach enables the effective and inclusive management of a transboundary global issue such as climate change at the regional level. By acting together and ensuring cross-sectoral coordination, Black Sea countries can move towards a more resilient, flexible, and sustainable future.

7.4. Success Stories and Best Practice Examples

Many successful practices and policies have been developed worldwide in the field of air quality management and sustainable urbanization. These success stories reflect effective solutions implemented through collaboration between local governments, communities, and technology providers, inspiring other regions.

7.4.1. Oslo

Oslo, the capital of Norway, is one of the pioneering cities setting an example to the world in its efforts to combat climate change and improve air quality. In particular, its “car-free city center” policy stands out as one of the most notable applications of Oslo’s environmentally friendly urbanization strategy. This approach was implemented with the aim of reducing individual car use, lowering carbon emissions, making city life more people-centered, and encouraging sustainable transportation options such as public transportation and bicycles.

Under this policy, the Oslo Municipality has banned or severely restricted private vehicle access to certain areas of the city center. Many parking spaces for cars have been removed, and these areas have been transformed into green spaces, playgrounds, benches, bike lanes, and pedestrian-priority streets. The primary objective of the initiative is to redefine the city center as a living space for people rather than vehicles. As a result, both air and noise pollution have decreased, while public spaces that encourage social interaction have increased.

The success of the application has not been limited to physical transformation alone, but has also brought about fundamental changes in transportation systems. Oslo has attracted attention with its investments in public transportation, making urban transportation more efficient and environmentally friendly with electric buses, rail systems, and low-emission service vehicles. Additionally, bicycle lanes have been expanded, sharing systems have been established, and infrastructure improvements have been made to enhance usability during winter conditions.

Although Oslo’s policy was initially criticized by some groups, its positive effects have become clearly evident in a short period of time. The concentration of harmful air pollutants such as NO₂ and PM2.5 in the city center has decreased, traffic-related carbon emissions have been reduced, and city residents have begun to use public spaces more actively. Although there were some initial reservations among small businesses and commercial enterprises, the increase in pedestrian traffic has had a positive impact on commercial activity in many areas.

Oslo’s “car-free city center” approach symbolizes a comprehensive transformation aimed at improving the quality of urban life, not limited to environmental benefits. This model serves as an inspiring example for other large cities, offering a concrete success story of the transition from car-centric planning to a human- and environment-focused approach to urbanization. Oslo’s bold and visionary policy demonstrates that it is possible to create more livable, healthy, and sustainable cities.

7.4.2. London

London, a metropolis that has been battling chronic air pollution for many years, has implemented numerous pioneering initiatives prioritizing environmental and public health. One of the most notable of these initiatives is the Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) policy, which came into effect in 2019. This policy aims to reduce traffic-related air pollutants, thereby promoting cleaner air, healthier living, and a more sustainable urban vision in the city center.

ULEZ is a policy that allows only vehicles meeting specific emission standards to freely circulate within a designated geographical area. Vehicles entering this zone are subject to a daily fee if they do not meet the specified emission criteria. This fee applies to gasoline vehicles that do not meet the Euro 4 emission standard and diesel vehicles that do not meet the Euro 6 emission standard. The scheme was initially limited to central London but was expanded in 2021 to cover a wider area, increasing its impact across the city. As of 2023, the scheme has been expanded to cover nearly the entire city of London.

Vehicles permitted to enter this area include electric vehicles, low-emission hybrid vehicles, and Euro 6 diesel or Euro 4 gasoline vehicles. Under the ULEZ, stricter rules apply to heavy-duty vehicles and commercial vehicles, and even buses used in the public transport system have been modernized to meet low emission standards. This has significantly reduced air pollutant emissions in urban transportation.

Environmental and health analyses conducted after the implementation of ULEZ have clearly demonstrated that this measure is an effective policy tool. By 2020, nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) levels in central London had decreased by approximately 44%. Additionally, there have been noticeable improvements in particulate matter (PM2.5) levels. These developments have had positive effects on the prevalence of respiratory diseases, particularly reducing health risks for children, the elderly, and individuals with chronic conditions.

The success of ULEZ has not only been driven by enforcement measures but also by the expansion of alternative transportation solutions. The London City Council has invested in its public transportation system, upgrading its bus fleet with electric and hybrid vehicles, and enhancing its cycling infrastructure

and made public transportation more accessible. As a result, the public has been encouraged to opt for more sustainable transportation methods instead of using private vehicles.

On the other hand, the ULEZ scheme has also sparked some debates regarding social justice. Critics argue that low-income individuals who own older vehicles face an economic burden due to the scheme. To mitigate this issue, the council has introduced scrap incentive programs for low-income groups, enabling them to replace their old vehicles with environmentally friendly models and striving to maintain social balance.

London’s Ultra Low Emission Zone initiative represents an effective, determined, and multi-dimensional approach to combating air pollution. This model is an exemplary application that encourages both local governments to develop policies and the public to participate in the transformation process with environmental awareness. ULEZ is not merely a technical regulation but a vision of urban transformation where the concept of a “clean city” becomes an integral part of daily life. As such, it serves as an adaptable reference model for other major cities.

7.4.3. Barcelona

Barcelona has developed and implemented the “superblocks” (Spanish: superilles) urban planning approach as a pioneering model in the field of air quality and sustainability in urban life. This model offers an innovative solution to the growing challenges faced by cities, such as increasing traffic congestion, air pollution, noise, and lack of public spaces. Superblocks aim to transform urban life by limiting vehicle traffic around traditional city blocks, thereby creating a more human-centered, environmentally friendly, and socially enriched urban environment.

In Barcelona, a superblock typically consists of 8 to 9 city blocks combined into a single area where motorized vehicle traffic is largely restricted, prioritizing pedestrians, cyclists, and green spaces. Only emergency vehicles, access for residents, and limited deliveries are permitted in these areas. The main roads surrounding superblocks continue to be used to maintain normal traffic flow. This ensures that vehicle traffic does not spread irregularly throughout the city but instead concentrates on specific routes, thereby reducing both traffic congestion and air pollution within the city.

In the superblock model, streets are prioritized for pedestrians and cyclists in areas where vehicle traffic is restricted. In these areas, vehicles must move at very low speeds (usually 10 km/h or less). With restricted vehicle access, streets become safer, quieter, and cleaner. In these areas, car parking spaces are removed, road surfaces are renovated, and green spaces, children’s playgrounds, seating areas, bike lanes, and public art are added. This creates a healthier, more social, and more ecological living environment for city residents.

1. Improved Air Quality: By limiting motor vehicle traffic, the concentration of harmful air pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM) from vehicles decreases. Significant reductions in air pollution have been observed in areas of Barcelona where superblocks have been implemented.

2. Reduction in Noise Pollution: Less vehicle traffic and lower speeds significantly reduce urban noise. This is an important factor in improving quality of life, especially for those living in densely populated urban areas.

3. Encouraging Pedestrian and Bicycle Use: Prioritizing pedestrians and cyclists in superblocks encourages people to walk more, ride bicycles, and participate in outdoor activities. This has a positive impact on public health.

4. Increased Public Spaces and Revitalized Social Life: Streets free of vehicles are transformed into green spaces, parks, seating areas, and playgrounds. This provides more meeting and socializing spaces for neighborhood residents, strengthening community bonds.

5. Reduced Traffic Congestion: Superblocks prevent vehicles from randomly roaming around the city, making traffic flow more controlled and orderly. Traffic flow on main roads improves and traffic congestion decreases throughout the city.

6. Combating Climate Change: Limiting vehicle use contributes to a reduction in fossil fuel consumption and, consequently, carbon emissions. This is an important step toward helping cities achieve their climate change goals.

The Barcelona City Council has begun implementing superblocks gradually in different neighborhoods, and the positive effects of this transformation have quickly become apparent. In areas with reduced traffic and vehicle density, air quality has improved and the quality of life for city residents has increased. Safe play areas and outdoor activities have been provided, especially for young people and children. Local businesses have also benefited economically from the increase in pedestrian traffic. Superblocks have also been seen as a tool for increasing social and environmental justice in the city.

Some challenges and criticisms have also been encountered during implementation. For example, route changes and reduced parking spaces initially caused inconvenience for drivers. However, these challenges were overcome through the involvement of the local community, transparent communication, and public awareness campaigns. Superblocks stand out as a model shaped by the active participation of city residents and adapted over time.

Barcelona’s superblocks model offers an innovative, comprehensive, and people-centered solution to the environmental and social challenges facing cities. This approach reduces car dependency in urban transportation while enriching social life and strengthening environmental sustainability. For cities worldwide grappling with air pollution, traffic, and quality of life issues, Barcelona’s superblock initiative serves as an inspiring and feasible example.

7.4.4. Beijing

The 2008 Summer Olympics, held in Beijing, the capital of China, were more than just a major international sporting event for the city; they also marked a historic turning point in terms of its environmental and social transformation. Due to the global attention the Olympics would attract, Beijing was compelled to implement comprehensive and effective measures to address its air pollution problem. The environmental policies implemented prior to the Olympics yielded significant gains in terms of both public health and the city’s image, setting an example for similar large-scale events.

Prior to the Olympics, Beijing faced serious air pollution problems due to its rapidly growing population, heavy industry, and increasing use of motor vehicles. Air quality in the city dropped to critical levels, especially during the winter months, with high levels of harmful particulate matter

(PM2.5 and PM10), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and sulfur dioxide (SO2) posed a threat to air health. This situation posed a significant risk not only for Olympic athletes and visitors but also for the millions of people living in Beijing.

The Beijing Municipal Government and the Chinese government implemented a comprehensive and simultaneous set of measures to significantly improve air quality ahead of the Olympics. These measures consisted of technical and policy solutions targeting sources of air pollutants in the city:

1. Restrictions on Motor Vehicle Traffic: Vehicle traffic within the city was significantly restricted. To reduce traffic congestion, no exemptions were granted for alternate-day driving based on license plate numbers; that is, only vehicles with specific license plates were allowed on the roads on certain days. This method temporarily reduced the number of vehicles and alleviated traffic congestion.

2. Ban on Old and Polluting Diesel Vehicles: Old model diesel trucks and heavy vehicles were removed from traffic in the city. These vehicles were banned or taken off the road because the harmful gases and particles emitted from their exhausts negatively affected air quality.

3. Strict Inspections and Closures of Industrial Facilities: In industrial areas around Beijing, factories causing high pollution were temporarily closed or had their production restricted. This resulted in significant reductions in SO2 and particulate matter emissions.

4. Expansion and Modernization of Public Transportation Systems: Significant investments were made in public transportation systems to reduce private vehicle use. New metro lines were opened, bus fleets were expanded, and environmentally friendly vehicles (e.g., natural gas or electric buses) were put into service. This made public transportation more attractive and accessible.

5. Improvement of Fuel Quality: The sulfur content of gasoline and diesel fuels has been reduced, resulting in fewer harmful gases being released during combustion. This technical improvement was an important step in reducing air pollution.

6. Dust Emission Control: Construction sites, open areas, and roads were regularly watered to prevent dust dispersion. Additionally, the cleanliness of roads within the city was improved.

7. Public Awareness and Participation: The people of Beijing were educated about air pollution to increase public support. For example, information campaigns were organized to encourage compliance with measures such as restrictions on private vehicle use.

Thanks to these comprehensive measures, significant improvements in air quality were observed in Beijing during and before the 2008 Olympics. Measurements showed a noticeable decrease of 40% to 60% in harmful gas and particulate matter levels. Specifically:

• Sulfur dioxide (SO₂)
• Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10)
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂)

such pollutants saw a significant drop in their concentrations.

These improvements positively impacted athletes’ performance during the Olympics and reduced the risk of health issues such as respiratory diseases for residents. Additionally, Beijing’s global image was strengthened as a result.

The measures taken by Beijing to improve air quality before the Olympics were not only important for a short-term event but also marked a turning point in the development of long-term environmental policies. This process highlighted the importance of integrated approaches and multi-stakeholder collaboration in the fight against urban air pollution.

However, some criticisms also emerged; for example, the closure of some industrial facilities and vehicle restrictions caused economic impacts and difficulties in people’s daily lives. This experience demonstrated the need to consider the social and economic dimensions of environmental regulations.

In conclusion, the air quality measures implemented prior to the 2008 Beijing Olympics are recognized as a successful example of managing the environmental impacts of international events held in large cities. This experience has inspired other cities to develop comprehensive and multi-dimensional strategies in their efforts to combat air pollution.

7.4.5. Bogotá

The capital city of Colombia, Bogotá, organizes a unique event called “Ciclovía” to improve urban quality of life and support public health, which is held up as an example around the world. The term “Ciclovía” means “bike path” in Spanish, but in Bogotá, this concept is implemented by closing certain streets and avenues in the city center to motorized traffic on specific days, allowing only pedestrians, cyclists, skaters, and other active mobility users to use them. These events provide numerous social, environmental, and health benefits for the city.

In Bogotá, the Ciclovía event is typically held every Sunday and on public holidays, during which approximately 75 miles (120 kilometers) of roads in the city center and major arteries are completely closed to motorized traffic for several hours. Along these roads, citizens are free to move around, exercise, walk, ride bicycles, skateboard, and participate in other outdoor activities. During the event, various cultural and sporting activities, yoga, dance classes, and health services are also offered in parks, squares, and streets.

1. Promotion of Physical Activity: Ciclovía aims to encourage city residents to get out of their daily routines and engage in physical activity outdoors. Regular physical activity is critical in preventing chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, obesity, diabetes, and certain mental health issues.

2. Reducing Air Pollution: Removing motor vehicles from the city center contributes to improving air quality, even if only temporarily. This aims to create a cleaner environment both during the event and in the long term through increased awareness among participants.

3. Social Cohesion and Interaction: Ciclovía creates a platform where people of different age groups and social backgrounds come together to socialize and strengthen social bonds.

People get to know each other while exercising on the streets, families spend time together, and neighborhoods come alive.

4. Changing Urban Transportation Habits: Ciclovía aims to reduce car dependency and encourage sustainable modes of transportation such as cycling. This helps reduce traffic congestion and vehicle-related air pollution in the long term.

5. Environmental Awareness: During the events, the public is educated about the environment and sustainable living. Participants are encouraged to make more environmentally friendly choices in their daily lives by experiencing the advantages of car-free living.

The foundations of Bogotá’s Ciclovía were laid in 1974. Initially a small-scale and experimental initiative, the event has since become part of the city’s official policies and is held regularly every week. The municipality has supported the event by enhancing safety measures, improving bike lanes, and enriching the event with social services. Today, Ciclovía has grown into a major social movement, attracting approximately 1.5 million participants and spreading from Latin America to the rest of the world.

Ciclovía contributes significantly not only to health and the environment but also to social and economic aspects. Local businesses and markets experience economic vitality on event days due to increased pedestrian traffic. Additionally, it supports social equality by providing safe, free spaces for physical activity for low-income residents of the city.

Bogotá’s Ciclovía event has served as a model for similar initiatives worldwide. Many large cities have begun organizing “car-free days” or “open street events” inspired by this successful example. The success of Ciclovía is largely attributed to the collaboration between city authorities and the public, as well as high levels of community participation.

7.4.6. C40 Clean Air Accelerator

Many of the world’s largest cities are facing serious air pollution problems due to growing populations, rapid urbanization, and industrialization. This problem threatens both the environment and the health of millions of people. At this critical juncture, the “C40 Clean Air Accelerator,” an important program of the C40 Cities Network—which brings together global collaboration and local action—steps in.

C40 is an international network of the world’s leading cities, bringing together cities to develop joint solutions to global challenges such as climate change and air quality. Cities within the network share knowledge and experience to develop effective policies and practices in the field of sustainability.

The “Clean Air Accelerator” program is a special initiative covering approximately 50 cities that are members of the C40 network. This program enables cities to make rapid progress in technical knowledge, financial support, capacity building, and policy development to improve air quality. The goal is to support local governments in implementing clean air projects more effectively and sustainably, thereby reducing the negative impacts of air pollution on human health.

Key Features and Operating Model of the Program

1. Experience and Knowledge Sharing: The C40 Clean Air Accelerator shares successful clean air policies and technologies implemented in different cities among cities. This allows cities to learn from each other and progress faster without making mistakes.

2. Technical and Financial Support: Technical consulting is provided to city administrations during the planning and implementation of projects, and financial support is offered when needed. This helps reduce technical and economic barriers to clean air projects.

3. Focus on Local Solutions: The program encourages the development of clean air solutions that are best suited to each city, taking into account its unique conditions. Specific strategies are supported in areas such as traffic management, industrial control, green infrastructure, and renewable energy use.

4. Community Participation and Awareness: Public participation is crucial in the fight against air pollution. The program includes various education and communication activities to raise awareness among city residents and involve local stakeholders in projects.

The Importance of the C40 Clean Air Accelerator

• Impact on Health: According to World Health Organization data, air pollution causes millions of premature deaths each year. This program contributes to reducing respiratory diseases, heart conditions, and other health problems by improving air quality.
• Combating Climate Change: Reducing air pollution often goes hand in hand with reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Thus, the program plays an important role in achieving climate goals.
• Global Cooperation Model: Joint action by cities from different countries provides an exemplary approach to solving global environmental problems. This model inspires similar cooperation in other areas.

Cities supported under the C40 Clean Air Accelerator have made concrete progress in many areas, including traffic congestion reduction measures, public transportation investments, industrial emissions monitoring, and green space projects. The program has also strengthened scientific and effective decision-making processes in the fight against air pollution by developing data collection and monitoring systems.

In conclusion, the C40 Clean Air Accelerator is a powerful global platform that accelerates cities’ efforts to achieve clean air. By enhancing the capacity of local governments, it supports people’s ability to live in healthy and livable cities. This highlights the importance of international cooperation and innovative solutions in addressing complex issues such as air pollution.

These examples demonstrate that complex environmental issues such as air pollution can be successfully managed through a combination of good governance, public participation, science-based decision-making, and technological innovation. For regions facing intense environmental pressures, such as the Black Sea Basin, these initiatives offer inspiring and actionable roadmaps.

7.4.7. Bulgaria – Sofia Electric Bus Project

Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria, has launched an electric bus project to enhance environmental sustainability and improve air quality in urban transportation. This project is a significant initiative aimed at modernizing the city’s public transportation system while reducing carbon emissions.

Sofia has faced environmental issues such as traffic-related air pollution and carbon emissions due to population growth and urbanization. The widespread use of traditional diesel buses has negatively impacted air quality, leading to health issues such as respiratory diseases. In this context, the Sofia Municipality and relevant authorities recognized the need to develop sustainable and environmentally friendly transportation solutions; the electric bus project was planned to address this need.

Electric buses offer numerous advantages over traditional vehicles powered by internal combustion engines:

• Zero Emissions: Electric buses do not emit exhaust gases, significantly reducing air pollutants such as CO₂, NOx, and particulate matter.
• Less Noise: The quiet operation of electric motors significantly reduces noise pollution in urban areas, providing a more comfortable environment for passengers and residents.
• Energy Efficiency: Electric motors offer higher performance in terms of fuel efficiency compared to diesel engines.
• Lower Operating Costs: Electricity usage and maintenance costs are more economical compared to diesel buses.

Project Implementation

As part of the Sofia Electric Bus Project, the municipality has initiated the use of electric buses on certain routes. This includes:

• Vehicle Procurement: High-capacity, modern electric buses have been added to the fleet. These vehicles are equipped with range and charging capabilities suitable for urban routes.
• Infrastructure Development: Charging stations have been installed, and the energy infrastructure has been strengthened to ensure the efficient operation of electric vehicles.
• Staff Training: Drivers and maintenance teams have received training on electric vehicle technology to ensure high service quality.
• Information and Incentives: Campaigns targeting passengers and the public have been conducted to highlight the advantages of electric buses and encourage the use of public transportation.

Results and Contributions

Following the implementation of the project, numerous positive developments have been observed in Sofia:

• Improved Air Quality: The use of electric buses has led to a reduction in air pollution levels, particularly on heavily trafficked public transportation routes.
• Increase in Public Transportation Demand: Thanks to modern and comfortable vehicles, public transportation usage rates have increased, contributing to reduced traffic congestion and individual vehicle use.
• Environmental Awareness: The project has raised awareness and support for environmentally friendly transportation solutions among the people of Sofia.

Sofia Municipality plans to expand its electric bus fleet and introduce electric vehicles on more routes. Additionally, efforts are ongoing to incorporate sustainable technologies in electric minibuses, trams, and other public transportation vehicles. This vision plays a key role in achieving the city’s climate goals and improving quality of life.

7.4.8. Romania – Bucharest Air Quality Monitoring Network

Bucharest, the capital of Romania, is a metropolis facing rapid urbanization, heavy traffic, and industrial air pollution as one of the largest cities in Eastern Europe. With a growing population and widespread vehicle ownership, the city frequently experiences high concentrations of pollutants such as fine particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and ozone (O₃), which sometimes exceed the limits set by the World Health Organization. This situation poses a serious threat to public health and environmental sustainability.

Within this framework, the “Bucharest Air Quality Monitoring Network” has been launched as an important initiative aimed at monitoring the city’s air quality in real time, informing the public, and shaping environmental policies with data-driven decisions.

Although air pollution is an invisible threat, its effects are quite tangible: respiratory diseases, heart problems, asthma in children, and the risk of premature death in the elderly are among the most significant issues. Romania, which is in the process of aligning with European Union environmental standards, has a particular need for more systematic, scientific, and transparent air quality measurement systems, especially in large cities.

The monitoring network in Bucharest has been structured to address this need, creating a modern environmental observation infrastructure accessible to both public institutions and the general public.

The Bucharest Air Quality Monitoring Network is a system consisting of fixed and portable sensors located in different areas. This system allows for real-time monitoring of air quality across the city at different times and under various conditions. The network’s key features include:

• Various Sensor Types: Sensors measuring primary air pollutants such as PM2.5, PM10, NO₂, CO, O₃, and SO₂ have been used.
• Real-Time Data: Measurements are instantly transferred to a central data collection system and visualized through maps.
• Comprehensive Location: Strategic points such as schools, hospitals, busy traffic arteries, green areas, and industrial zones have been selected for measurement.
• Open Data Platform: The collected data can be tracked online by both authorized environmental agencies and the public through online portals. This has increased transparency and public awareness.

Thanks to the Bucharest Air Quality Monitoring Network, significant improvements have been achieved in the following areas of the city:

1. Early Warning Systems: Systems have been implemented to enable preventive measures to be taken at high pollution levels, particularly for the elderly, children, and those with chronic illnesses.

2. Policy Development: Local authorities and environmental agencies have begun to plan policies such as traffic restrictions, industrial inspections, and alternative transportation incentives more accurately based on air pollution levels.

3. Public Awareness: Citizens are now able to monitor air quality, including daily weather conditions, through mobile applications and web portals; individual measures such as mask use and timing of outdoor activities have increased.

The Bucharest Municipality and the Romanian Ministry of Environment aim for this monitoring network to not only collect data but also achieve the following long-term goals:

• Mapping Pollution Sources: Identifying which types of pollution are dominant in specific areas to develop regional solutions.
• Clean Transportation Policies: Directing transportation-based solutions such as the electrification of public transportation systems and the expansion of bicycle lanes.
• Green Space Planning: Prioritizing reforestation and park area planning in regions with high pollution levels.
• Alignment with the European Green Deal: Accelerating Bucharest’s environmental transformation in line with Romania’s 2050 carbon neutrality target.

The Bucharest Air Quality Monitoring Network is not just a technological infrastructure, but also a powerful example of environmental governance that puts public health at its core. This system, which protects the city’s atmosphere from invisible threats, stands out as an important component of Romania’s vision for sustainable urbanization. This model, which also serves as an example for other cities facing similar challenges, clearly demonstrates that clean air is not a luxury but a fundamental human right.

7.4.9. Ukraine – Dnipro Clean Air Plan

Dnipro, Ukraine’s fourth-largest city, is historically known as one of the country’s major industrial centers. Home to the metallurgy, chemical, and energy sectors, the city has played an important economic role since the Soviet era, but this development has come at a significant environmental cost. Over the years, the density of industrial facilities, traffic-related emissions, and unplanned urbanization have made Dnipro one of Ukraine’s cities with the highest levels of air pollution.

In response to this situation, the “Dnipro Clean Air Plan,” developed with the contribution of local authorities, civil society organizations, and international partners, is a comprehensive approach aimed at reducing air pollution in the city, protecting public health, and promoting sustainable urban development.

According to the World Health Organization, air pollution-related premature deaths account for a significant proportion of overall mortality in Ukraine. In Dnipro specifically, the main issues are as follows:

• Heavy particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) pollution
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) emissions
• Insufficient green space and direct exposure of the public to industrial emissions

In addition, the insufficient number of air quality monitoring stations in previous years had hindered data-driven policy making. The Dnipro Clean Air Plan provides a roadmap with strategic and concrete steps to address these challenges.

Under the plan, fixed and mobile air quality monitoring stations have been established throughout the city. These stations enable real-time monitoring of pollutant levels such as PM2.5, NO₂, and SO₂, with data shared publicly through open platforms. This transparency contributes to public awareness.

Stricter controls have been implemented for industrial establishments. While environmentally friendly technology investments are encouraged for old and high-emission facilities, sanctions are imposed on facilities that do not meet certain criteria. At the same time, the integration of low-carbon production processes is supported with international funds.

The public transportation system is being modernized with electric buses, and bicycle lanes and pedestrian-priority areas are being planned. Additionally, scrap incentive programs have been implemented to remove old-model vehicles from traffic.

Urban greening initiatives, such as increasing green spaces and recreational areas, aim to improve air quality and enhance the quality of life for residents.

The plan is not limited to technical measures; it focuses on involving all segments of society in the process. Environmental education programs have been launched in schools, and public campaigns have been conducted to inform citizens about measures they can take at the individual level.

The Dnipro Clean Air Plan has been developed in line with the general air management strategy of the Ministry of Environmental Protection of Ukraine. In addition, joint efforts have been made with global institutions such as the European Union, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), and C40 Cities. These collaborations have enabled both technical knowledge sharing and financial support mechanisms.

Within the first two years following the implementation of the plan:

• A reduction of up to 15% in PM2.5 levels
• A 20% reduction in industrial emissions in specific areas
• An increase in the number of public transportation users
• A significant increase in environmental awareness among the public has been observed.

In the long term, Dnipro’s goal is to meet European Union environmental standards and significantly reduce carbon emissions by 2030. The plan aims to make Dnipro a model city not only in terms of economic sustainability but also in terms of environmental sustainability.

The Dnipro Clean Air Plan is a powerful example of how a city with a strong industrial heritage can be made healthier, more livable, and more sustainable through modern environmental management practices. This plan serves as an inspiring roadmap for other cities seeking solutions to environmental challenges, reinforcing the reality that clean air is not a privilege but a fundamental human right.

7.4.10. Türkiye – Dilovası OSB Industrial Emission Controls

Dilovası Organized Industrial Zone (OSB), which plays an important role in Türkiye’s industrialization process, is one of the most densely populated industrial areas in the Marmara Region. Located within the borders of Kocaeli Province, Dilovası hosts a wide range of heavy industries, including chemicals, metals, automotive, energy, and plastics, making it a critical region for Türkiye’s economy in terms of production capacity. However, this high production potential also poses significant environmental risks.

Scientific research and public observations in recent years have shown that Dilovası has reached an alarming point, particularly in terms of air pollution, industrial waste management, and impacts on human health. This situation has made it imperative to implement environmental improvement policies and industrial emission controls at both the local and national levels.

Dilovası OSB stands out due to the high concentration of industrial facilities within a limited geographical area. This situation has created environmental pressures, particularly in the following areas:

• Flue gas emissions (SO₂, NOₓ, PM10, PM2.5, VOCs)
• Heavy metal and volatile organic compound emissions
• Insufficient green buffer zones
• Inability of pollutants to disperse in the atmosphere due to reverse air movements and meteorological inversions

All these factors combined have led to a serious deterioration in air quality and a threat to public health. Among the residents of the region, the rates of asthma, COPD, respiratory infections, and certain types of cancer are observed to be above the national average.

To address these issues, the Ministry of Environment, Urbanization, and Climate Change, Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality, academic institutions, and industrial representatives have launched a comprehensive Industrial Emission Control Program. The primary objective of this program is to align industrial production with environmental standards and achieve sustainable improvements in air quality.

The installation of online continuous emission monitoring systems (SEÖS) has been made mandatory for all industrial facilities. These systems monitor pollutant levels in flue gases in real time and transmit the data to a central environmental monitoring system. Additionally, investments in advanced dust collection filters, electrostatic precipitators, and flue gas treatment units have been encouraged.

The Ministry and provincial directorates conduct regular and unannounced environmental inspections within industrial zones and impose penalties on facilities found to have non-compliant emission levels. Additionally, the operations of companies without environmental licenses or those exceeding emission limits may be temporarily suspended.

Detailed environmental modeling studies have mapped emission sources in the region and identified the sectors and facilities contributing the most. These analyses have enabled emission reduction strategies to be made more targeted.

To increase air circulation and reduce the spread of pollutants around the OSB, afforestation efforts, green buffer zones, and windbreaks have been implemented. These areas have contributed to the region both ecologically and visually.

Online platforms and mobile applications have been developed to enable the local community to access air quality data. Additionally, regional environmental councils have been established with the participation of academic circles and civil society organizations to ensure public involvement in monitoring and oversight processes.

As a result of the implemented monitoring and investment programs:

• Significant reductions in PM10 and SO₂ levels
• Transparent data production through the effectiveness of emission monitoring systems
• A trend toward more environmentally friendly production processes in industrial facilities
• An increase in public awareness and a strengthening of trust among the local population.

Additionally, some leading companies in the region have demonstrated their commitment to more sustainable production practices by adopting the ISO 14001 environmental management system and obtaining environmentally friendly production certifications.

Dilovası OSB Industrial Emission Controls has become a pioneering application that serves as a model for industrial zones across Türkiye. This experience demonstrates that environmental management and economic growth can coexist. The long-term goal is to align industry with digitalization, green transformation, and circular economy principles in line with the zero-emission target.

The Dilovası example demonstrates the importance of a determined and multi-stakeholder approach to managing the environmental and social impacts of industrialization. This process, supported by principles of proper planning, strict oversight, and transparency, represents a meaningful step toward building cities that can breathe not only today but also in the future.